Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-zzw9c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-13T01:14:27.065Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Opinion incongruence and public support for direct decision‐making

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2026

Lisa Van Dijk Open the ORCID record for Lisa Van Dijk [Opens in a new window] ,
Wouter Vanbroekhoven Open the ORCID record for Wouter Vanbroekhoven [Opens in a new window]  and
Sofie Marien
Lisa Van Dijk*
Affiliation:
Centre for Political Science Research, KU Leuven, Belgium Media, Movements, and Politics (M, 2, P), University of Antwerp, Belgium
Wouter Vanbroekhoven
Affiliation:
Centre for Political Science Research, KU Leuven, Belgium
Sofie Marien
Affiliation:
Centre for Political Science Research, KU Leuven, Belgium
*
Address for correspondence: Lisa van Dijk, Centre for Political Science Research, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. Email: lisa.vandijk@kuleuven.be
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Political representation does not function well for citizens whose positions on political issues differ from those of elected representatives. In this paper, we argue that opinion incongruence leads citizens to want to bypass elected representatives and place more decision‐making power in the hands of the public. We theorise that this is because incongruent citizens are highly dissatisfied with the existing political system and/or think they will benefit from direct decision‐making in terms of improved policy responsiveness. Using data from the 2019 Belgian Election Survey (n = 3413) and Party Leadership Survey, we find that greater incongruence between citizens’ positions and those of their elected representatives is related to higher support for direct decision‐making. This holds for opinion incongruence with the party voted for and incongruence with Parliament as a whole. This paper contributes novel insights into the consequences of the quality of political representation as well as the drivers of citizens’ support for direct decision‐making processes.

Keywords

congruencerepresentationreferendumsdirect decision‐making

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
European Journal of Political Research , Volume 63 , Issue 4 , November 2024 , pp. 1308 - 1327
Copyright
Copyright © 2024 European Consortium for Political Research.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

Funding Information:

This project has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement no. 759736). This publication reflects the authors' view and the Agency is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. This project (G0F0218N) has received funding from the FWO and F.R.S.‐FNRS under the Excellence of Science programme.

References

Allen, N., & Birch, S. (2015). Process preferences and British public opinion: Citizens’ judgements about government in an era of anti‐politics. Political Studies, 63(2), 390–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467‐9248.12110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
André, A., & Depauw, S. (2017). The quality of representation and satisfaction with democracy: The consequences of citizen‐elite policy and process congruence. Political Behavior, 39(2), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109‐016‐9360‐xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, C., & Franklin, M. N. (2012). Introduction: Issue congruence and political responsiveness. West European Politics, 35(6), 1217–1225. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2012.713741CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakker, R., Jolly, S., & Polk, J. (2020). Multidimensional incongruence, political disaffection, and support for anti‐establishment parties. Journal of European Public Policy, 27(2), 292–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2019.1701534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, P. C., Barberá, P., Ackermann, K., & Venetz, A. (2017). Is the left‐right scale a valid measure of ideology? Individual‐level variation in associations with “left” and “right” and left‐right self‐placement. Political Behavior, 39(3), 553–583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109‐016‐9368‐2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beiser‐McGrath, L. F., Huber, R. A., Bernauer, T., & Koubi, V. (2022). Parliament, people or technocrats? Explaining mass public preferences on delegation of policymaking authority. Comparative Political Studies, 55(4), 527–554. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140211024284CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bengtsson, Å., & Mattila, M. (2009). Direct democracy and its critics: Support for direct democracy and ‘stealth’ democracy in Finland. West European Politics, 32(5), 1031–1048. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380903065256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bertsou, E., & Caramani, D. (2020). People haven't had enough of experts: Technocratic attitudes among European citizens. American Journal of Political Science, 66(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12554CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blais, A., & Bodet, M. A. (2006). Does proportional representation foster closer congruence between citizens and policy makers? Comparative Political Studies, 39(10), 1243–1262. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414005284374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowler, S., & Donovan, T. (2019). Perceptions of referendums and democracy: The referendum disappointment gap. Politics and Governance, 7(2), 227–241. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v7i2.1874CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowler, S., Donovan, T., & Karp, J. A. (2007). Enraged or engaged? Preferences for direct citizen participation in affluent democracies. Political Research Quarterly, 60(3), 351–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912907304108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brummel, L. (2020). ‘You can't always get what you want’: The effects of winning and losing in a referendum on citizens’ referendum support. Electoral Studies, 65, 102155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102155CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budge, I., & McDonald, M. D. (2007). Election and party system effects on policy representation: Bringing time into a comparative perspective. Electoral Studies, 26(1), 168–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2006.02.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, M. (2021). Ideology, not affect: What Americans want from political representation. American Journal of Political Science, 65(2), 342–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12571CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahlberg, S., & Holmberg, S. (2014). Democracy and bureaucracy: How their quality matters for popular satisfaction. West European Politics, 37(3), 515–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2013.830468CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, R. J., Bürklin, W., & Drummond, A. (2001). Public opinion and direct democracy. Journal of Democracy, 12(4), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2001.0066CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, R. J., & Welzel, C. (Eds.). (2014). The civic culture transformed: From allegiant to assertive citizens. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dassonneville, R., & McAllister, I. (2020). The party choice set and satisfaction with democracy. West European Politics, 43(1), 49–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2019.1609286CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dean, R. (2022). A theory of contingency in political process preferences: Untangling contextuality, conditionality and ambivalence. Presented at the ECPR General Conference in Innsbruck.Google Scholar
Deschouwer, K. (2012). The politics of Belgium: Governing a divided society (2nd ed.). Palgrave MacMillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donovan, T., & Karp, J. A. (2006). Popular support for direct democracy. Party Politics, 12(5), 671–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068806066793CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esaiasson, P., & Wlezien, C. (2017). Advances in the study of democratic responsiveness: An introduction. Comparative Political Studies, 50(6), 699–710. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016633226CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Font, J., Wojcieszak, M., & Navarro, C. J. (2015). Participation, representation and expertise: Citizen preferences for political decision‐making processes. Political Studies, 63(S1), 153–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467‐9248.12191CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geißel, B., Krämling, A., & Paulus, L. (2019). More or less equality? Direct democracy in Europe from 1990 to 2015. Zeitschrift Fur Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft, 13(4), 491–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12286‐019‐00435‐3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, E. R. (1996). Legislative response to the threat of popular initiatives. American Journal of Political Science, 40(1), 99–128. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111696CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gherghina, S., & Geißel, B. (2019). An alternative to representation: Explaining preferences for citizens as political decision‐makers. Political Studies Review, 17(3), 224–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478929918807713CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golder, M., & Stramski, J. (2010). Ideological congruence and electoral institutions. American Journal of Political Science, 54(1), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540‐5907.2009.00420.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakhverdian, A. (2012). The causal flow between public opinion and policy: Government responsiveness, leadership, or counter movement? West European Politics, 35(6), 1386–1406. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2012.713751CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakhverdian, A., & Schakel, W. (2021). The political representation of left‐nationalist voters. Acta Politica, 57, 489–509. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269‐021‐00205‐8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Held, D. (2006). Models of democracy. Polity Press.Google Scholar
Hibbing, J. R., & Theiss‐Morse, E. (2002). Stealth democracy: Americans’ belief about how government should work. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobolt, S. B., Hoerner, J. M., & Rodon, T. (2021). Having a say or getting your way? Political choice and satisfaction with democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 60(4), 854–873. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475‐6765.12429CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, J. D., & Powell, G. B. (1994). Congruence between citizens and policymakers in two visions of liberal democracy. World Politics, 46(3), 291–326. https://doi.org/10.2307/2950684CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, M. (2009). Cross‐national analyses of satisfaction with democracy and ideological congruence. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 19(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457280802568402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krosnick, J. A., Holbrook, A. L., Berent, M. K., Carson, R. T., Hanemann, W. M., Kopp, R. J., Mitchell, R. C., Presser, S., Ruud, P. A., Smith, V. K., Moody, W. R., Green, M. C., & Conaway, M. (2002). The impact of “no opinion” response options on data quality. Public Opinion Quarterly, 66(3), 371–403. https://doi.org/10.1086/341394CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landwehr, C., & Harms, P. (2020). Preferences for referenda: Intrinsic or instrumental? Evidence from a survey experiment. Political Studies, 68(4), 875–894. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719879619CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leemann, L., & Wasserfallen, F. (2016). The democratic effect of direct democracy. American Political Science Review, 110(4), 750–762. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055416000307CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefkofridi, Z. (2020). Opinion‐policy congruence. In Rohrschneider, R. & Thomassen, Jacques (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of political representation in liberal democracies (pp. 357–376). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lesschaeve, C. (2017a). Finding inequality in an unlikely place: Differences in policy congruence between social groups in Belgium. Acta Politica, 52(3), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269‐016‐0033‐xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesschaeve, C. (2017b). Inequality in party‐voter opinion congruence: A matter of choices made or choices given? Representation, 53(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2017.1333034CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesschaeve, C. (2017c). The predictive power of the left‐right self‐placement scale for the policy positions of voters and parties. West European Politics, 40(2), 357–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2016.1229088CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, A. (2012). Patterns of democracy: government forms and performance in thirty‐six countries (2nd ed.). Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Mair, P. (2008). The challenge to party government. West European Politics, 31(1–2), 211–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380701835033CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manin, B., Przeworski, A., & Stokes, S. C. (1999). Elections and representation. In Przeworski, A., Stokes, S. C., & Manin, B. (Eds.), Democracy, accountability, and representation (pp. 29–54). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsusaka, J. G. (2010). Popular control of public policy: A quantitative approach. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 5(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1561/100.00009055CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayne, Q., & Hakhverdian, A. (2017). Ideological congruence and citizen satisfaction: Evidence from 25 advanced democracies. Comparative Political Studies, 50(6), 822–849. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016639708CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medvic, S. (2019). Explaining support for stealth democracy. Representation, 55(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2019.1581076CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, B., Atkins, J. L., Champion, D. S., Edwards, C., Hardy, D., Story, J. E., & Vanderklok, M. (1985). The false consensus effect: A meta‐analysis of 115 hypothesis tests. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21(3), 262–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022‐1031(85)90020‐4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, R. (1999). Mass‐elite linkages and the responsible party model of representation. In Miller, W. E., Pierce, R., Thomassen, J., Herrera, R., Holmberg, S., Esaiasson, P., & Wessels, B. (Eds.), Policy representation in Western democracies (pp. 9–32). Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pilet, J.‐B., Bol, D., Vittori, D., & Paulis, E. (2023). Public support for deliberative citizens’ assemblies selected through sortition: Evidence from 15 countries. European Journal of Political Research, 62(3), 873–902. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475‐6765.12541CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitkin, H. (1967). The concept of representation. University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, G. B. (2004). The chain of responsiveness. Journal of Democracy, 15(4), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2004.0070CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, G. B. (2009). The ideological congruence controversy: The impact of alternative measures, data, and time periods on the effects of election rules. Comparative Political Studies, 42(12), 1475–1497. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414009332147CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reher, S. (2016). The effects of congruence in policy priorities on satisfaction with democracy. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 26(1), 40–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2015.1064436CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohrschneider, R., & Whitefield, S. (2012). Institutional context and representational strain in party‐voter agreement in Western and Eastern Europe. West European Politics, 35(6), 1320–1340. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2012.713748CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosema, M., Denters, B., & Aarts, K. (Eds.). (2011). How democracy works: Political representation and policy congruence in modern societies. Pallas Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schakel, W., & Burgoon, B. (2022). The party road to representation: Unequal responsiveness in party platforms. European Journal of Political Research, 61(2), 304–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475‐6765.12489CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schakel, W., & Hakhverdian, A. (2018). Ideological congruence and socio‐economic inequality. European Political Science Review, 10(3), 441–465. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773918000036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuck, A. R. T., & de Vreese, C. H. (2015). Public support for referendums in Europe: A cross‐national comparison in 21 countries. Electoral Studies, 38, 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2015.02.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, D. A., Tolbert, C. J., & Keller, A. M. (2010). Electoral and structural losers and support for a national referendum in the U.S. Electoral Studies, 29(3), 509–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.04.017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stecker, C., & Tausendpfund, M. (2016). Multidimensional government‐citizen congruence and satisfaction with democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 55(3), 492–511. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475‐6765.12147CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stimson, J. A., Mackuen, M. B., & Erikson, R. S. (1995). Dynamic representation. American Political Science Review, 89(3), 543–565. https://doi.org/10.2307/2082973CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Comparative Study of Electoral Systems. (www.cses.org). CSES MODULE 5 fourth advance release [dataset and documentation]. March 1, 2022 version. https://doi.org/10.7804/cses.module5.2022‐03‐01CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomassen, J. (2012). The blind corner of political representation. Representation, 48(1), 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2012.653229CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urbinati, N., & Warren, M. E. (2008). The concept of representation in contemporary democratic theory. Annual Review of Political Science, 11(1), 387–412. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053006.190533CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walgrave, S., & Lefevere, J. (2013). Ideology, salience, and complexity: Determinants of policy issue incongruence between voters and parties. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 23(4), 456–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2013.810630CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werner, H. (2020). If I'll win it, I want it: The role of instrumental considerations in explaining public support for referendums. European Journal of Political Research, 59(2), 312–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475‐6765.12358CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, H., Marien, S., & Felicetti, A. (2020). A problem‐based approach to understanding public support for referendums. European Journal of Political Research, 59(3), 538–554. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475‐6765.12368CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wlezien, C. (1995). The public as thermostat: Dynamics of preferences for spending. American Journal of Political Science, 39(4), 981–1000. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111666CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wojcieszak, M. (2014). Preferences for political decision‐making processes and issues public. Public Opinion Quarterly, 78(4), 917–939. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfu039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Van Dijk et al. supplementary material

Appendix A and B
Download Van Dijk et al. supplementary material(File)
File 975.5 KB
Supplementary material: File

Van Dijk et al. supplementary material

Van Dijk et al. supplementary material 1
Download Van Dijk et al. supplementary material(File)
File 751.7 KB