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² Elizabeth Shakman Hurd, A Suspension of (Dis)Belief: The Secular-Religious Binary and the Study of International Relations, in Rethinking Secularism 168 (Craig Calhoun, Mark Juergensmeyer & Jonathan VanAntwerpen eds., 2011).Google Scholar

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⁴ Erdoğran has described laiklik in such terms at various points. Notable examples include his September 2011 remarks to countries experiencing political change during the Arab Spring that “a secular state is an equal distance from all faith groups” (laik devlet her inanç grubuna eşit mesafededir) and his April 2016 statement, following controversial comments from an AKP parliamentarian that a new constitution should not include secularism, that “[t]he reality is that the state should have an equal distance from all religious faiths … [t]his is laicism.” Selçuk Şenyüz, Bir Müslüman laik ülke yönetebilir, Hürriyet (Sept. 16, 2011), http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/bir-musluman-laik-ulke-yonetebilir-18743956; Erdoğran says ‘state should have equal distance from all religious faiths’ after secularism row, Daily Sabah (Apr. 26, 2016), https://www.dailysabah.com/legislation/2016/04/26/erdogan-says-state-should-have-equal-distance-from-all-religious-faiths-after-secularism-row; Kubilay Aydin, Erdoğran: Laiklik ateizm değrildir, korkmayın, Sözcü (Apr. 26, 2016), https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2016/gundem/erdogan-laiklik-ateizm-degildir-korkmayin-1202212/.Google Scholar

⁵ Unlike for many Sunni Muslims, the headscarf is not a practice among Alevis, who, estimates suggest, comprise between 10 and 25 percent of the Turkish population. A definitive number does not exist because the Turkish census does not account for Alevism and many Alevis hesitate to disclose their religious identity due to discrimination. Bedriye Poyraz, The Turkish State and Alevis: Changing Parameters of an Uneasy Relationship, 41 Middle E. Stud. 503 (2005); Gürcan Koçan & Ahmet Öncü, Citizen Alevi in Turkey: Beyond Confirmation and Denial, 17 J. of Hist. Soc. 475–76 (2004); Fethi Açikel & Kazim Ateş, Ambivalent Citizens: The Alevi as the ‘Authentic Self’ and the ‘Stigmatized Other’ of Turkish Nationalism, 13 Eur. Soc'y 714 (2011).Google Scholar

⁶ For example, although the AKP initiated an “Alevi opening” (Alevi açilımı) in 2007 to address the grievances of the Alevi population, the Turkish state has continued to ignore or reject the central demands of the Alevi movement, such as official recognition of Alevi houses of worship (cemevleri) similar to that of mosques, while implementing superficial reforms, such as the renaming of a university after an Anatolian mystic important in the Alevi tradition. As recently as late November 2015, the state has promised a “fresh” Alevi opening, acknowledging the failure of past efforts. See Zeyrek, Deniz, Fresh ‘Alevi opening’ high on AKP's roadmap, Hürriyet Daily News (Nov. 19, 2015), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/fresh-alevi-opening-high-on-akps-roadmap-91358; İlter Turan, Democratization from Above: Erdoğran's Democracy Package, The German Marshall Fund of the United States (Oct. 22, 2013), http://www.gmfus.org/; Talha Köse, The AKP and the ‘Alevi Opening’: Understanding the Dynamics of the Rapprochement, 12 Insight Turk. 143–64 (2010).Google Scholar

⁷ Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Secularized State: Its Character, Justification, and Problems in the Twenty-First Century, in 2 Religion, Law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

⁸ Note that Böckenförde always speaks of the secularized state that has “emancipated itself from the embrace of religion” and in which religion “no longer constitutes the binding foundation and leaven of the state order.” Id.Google Scholar

⁹ Id.; Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde, The Rise of The State as a Process of Secularization, in 2 Religion, Law and Democracy: Selected Writings (Mirjam Künkler & Tine Stein eds., forthcoming 2018).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Böckenförde, supra note 7.Google Scholar

¹¹ Id.Google Scholar

¹² Id. Google Scholar

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¹⁷ Id. Google Scholar

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¹⁹ Seriye ve Evkaf Vekaleti. Google Scholar

²⁰ Medreses.Google Scholar

²¹ For a more detailed discussion of political, legal, and social reforms in early republican Turkey, see Özman, Aylın, Law, Ideology and Modernization in Turkey: Kemalist Legal Reforms in Perspective, 19 Soc. & Legal Stud. 68–82 (2010); Carter Vaughn Findley, Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity 248–53 (2010).Google Scholar

²² For a more detailed discussion of nation-building efforts in early republican Turkey, see Başak İnce, Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk's Republic to the Present Day 39–85 (2012); Findley, supra note 21, at 253–57.Google Scholar

²³ Kanun No. 429, Şeriye ve Evkaf ve Evkânı harbiye umumiye vekâletlerinin ilgasına dair kanun (1924).Google Scholar

²⁴ Mona Hassan, Women Preaching for the Secular State: Official Female Preachers (Bayan Vaizler) in Contemporary Turkey, 43 Int'l J. of Middle E. Stud. 455 (2011).Google Scholar

²⁵ Id.; Ufuk Ulutas, Religion and Secularism in Turkey: The Dilemma of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, 46 Middle E. Stud. 392–93 (2010).Google Scholar

²⁶ Candas Pinar, Religion-State Relations in Turkey Since the AKP: A Changing Landscape? Evidence from Parliamentary Debates on the Alevi Matter, 33 J. Muslim Minority Aff. 509 (2013); İştar B. Gözaydın, Diyanet and Politics, 98 The Muslim World 223 (2008); Yıdız Atasoy, Two Imaginaries of Public Citizenship in Turkey: The Republican and ‘Ethical’ Models, 24 Int'l J. Pol., Culture, & Soc'y 108 (2011).Google Scholar

²⁷ For the complete translated text of Law 677, see Friedlander, Ira, The Whirling Dervishes: Being an Account of the Sufi Order Known as the Mevlevis and Its Founder the Poet and Mystic Mevlana Jalalu'ddin Rumi 117 (1975).Google Scholar

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³² Kanun No. 633, Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığrı Kuruluş ve Görevleri hakkında Kanun (1965) (“İslam Dininin inançları, ibadet ve ahlak esasları ile ilgili işleri yürütmek, din konusunda toplumu aydınlatmak ve ibadet yerlerini yönetmek üzere.”)Google Scholar

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³⁵ Mustafa Şen, Transformation of Turkish Islamism and the Rise of the Justice and Development Party, 11 Turk. Stud. 61 (2010).Google Scholar

³⁶ Ayşe Kadıoğrlu, The Paradox of Turkish Nationalism and the Construction of Official Identity, in Turkey: Identity, Democracy, Politics 190 (Sylvia Kedourie ed., 1996); Karin Vorhoff, The Past in the Future: Discourses on the Alevis in Contemporary Turkey, in Turkey's Alevi Enigma: A Comprehensive Overview 95 (White, Paul J. & Joost Jongerden eds., 2003).Google Scholar

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³⁸ TürkIye Cumhuriyeti Anayasasi [Constitution] Nov. 7, 1982, m. 174 (“…lâiklik ilkesi doğrrultusunda, bütün siyasî görüş ve düşünüşlerin dışında kalarak ve milletçe dayanışma ve bütünleşmeyi amaç edinerek, özel kanununda gösterilen görevleri yerine getirir”) (Turk.).Google Scholar

³⁹ Kabir Tambar, The Reckoning of Pluralism: Political Belonging and the Demands of History in Turkey 90 (2014).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Adrien Katherine Wing & Varol, Ozan O., Is Secularism Possible in a Majority-Muslim Country? The Turkish Example, 42 Tex. Int'l L. J. 36 (2006); Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasasi [Constitution] Nov. 7, 1982, başlangıç (“lâiklik lkesinin gereğri olarak kutsal din duygularının, Devlet işlerine ve politikaya kesinlikle karıştırılamayacağrı”) (Turk.).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Findley, supra note 21, at 356–58.Google Scholar

⁴² For a more detailed discussion of the content and application of each of these demands, see Günay, Niyazi, Implementing the ‘February 28‘ Recommendations: A Scorecard (The Washington Institute, Research Notes No. 10, May 2001), http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/implementing-the-february-28-recommendations-a-scorecard.Google Scholar

⁴³ Sina Akşin, Turkey: From Empire to Revolutionary Republic 211–12 (Mursalo, Dexter H.ğrlu trans., 2007); Ergün Yildirim, Hüsamettin Inaç, & Ahmet Uysal, Symbolic Construction of the Turkish National Identity as a Factor of International Management, 7 Probs. and Persp. Mgmt. 248 (2009).Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ For a more detailed discussion of hutbes in early republican Turkey, see Gürpinar, Doğran & Kenar, Ceren, The Nation and its Sermons: Islam, Kemalism and the Presidency of Religious Affairs in Turkey, 52 Middle E. Stud. 60–78 (2016).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ The full comment may be found below:Google Scholar

Laiklik özgürlük Demek, Radikal (Feb. 6, 2004), http://www.radikal.com.tr/, quoted in Markus Dressler, Public-Private Distinctions, the Alevi Question, and the Headscarf, in Comparative Secularisms in a Global Age 124 (Linell Cady & Elizabeth Shakman eds., 2010).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Shari'a 217–18 (2008).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Turkish Top Court Annuls Headscarf Law, Deals a Blow to Ruling AKP, Hürriyet (June 5, 2008), http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/turkish-top-court-annuls-headscarf-law-deals-a-blow-to-ruling-akp-9107525.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Ece Toksabay & Ibon Villelabeitia, In Quiet Revolution, Turkey Eases Headscarf Ban, Reuters (Oct. 17, 2010); Hüseyin Hayatsever, Government Takes Steps on Headscarf, Kurds, Electoral System, Hurriyet Daily News (Sept. 30, 2013), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/; Turkey allows female police officers to wear headscarf, Daily Sabah (Aug. 27, 2016), https://www.dailysabah.com/legislation/2016/08/27/turkey-allows-female-police-officers-to-wear-headscarf.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Istanbul Marks 1453 Ottoman Conquest of Istanbul with Grandiose Ceremony, Hurriyet Daily News (May 29, 2016), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/istanbul-marks-1453-ottoman-conquest-of-istanbul-with-grandiose-ceremony-99825; Millions Gather in Istanbul for Historic Democracy Rally, Daily Sabah (Aug. 8, 2016), https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/2016/08/08/millions-gather-in-istanbul-for-historic-democracy-rally; Millions Stand for Democracy in Turkey, Hürriyet Daily News (Aug. 5, 2016), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/millions-stand-for-democracy-in-turkey-102510.Google Scholar

⁵¹ David Lepeska, Turkey Casts the Diyanet: Ankara's Religious Directorate Takes Off, Foreign Affairs (May 17, 2015), https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2015-05-17/turkey-casts-diyanet; Neşe Karanfil, Intelligence, Religious Affairs Set to Take Huge Share of Turkey's 2016 Budget, Hurriyet Daily News (Oct. 13, 2015), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/intelligence-religious-affairs-set-to-take-huge-share-of-turkeys-2016-budget—89761.Google Scholar

⁵² Vaizler. Google Scholar

⁵³ Ku'ran kursu öğrreticileri. Google Scholar

⁵⁴ İmam-hatipler. Google Scholar

⁵⁵ The vaiz does not deliver the hutbe but is authorized to preach in religious sites and answer religious questions. In contrast, the imam-hatip (imam) only delivers the pre-planned and approved hutbes and leads prayers. Hassan, supra note 24, at 456.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ In 2005, nearly one-third of Turkish mosques were not staffed by the Diyanet personnel due to personnel shortages. Thijl Sunier, Nico Landman, Heleen van der Linden, Nazli Bilgili & Alper Bilgili, DİYANET: The Turkish Directorate for Religious Affairs in a Changing Environment 44 (2011).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ For a more detailed discussion of Law 6002, see Sunier, Landman, Linden, Bilgili & Bilgili, supra note 56, at 48–50.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Id. at 50.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Data for the years 2005 through 2015 was gathered from the Diyanet's website at: istatistiksel Tablolar, http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/tr/kategori/istatistikler/136 (last visited Mar. 30, 2018); data for years 1998 through 2004 was gathered from: Sunier, Landman, Linden, Bilgili & Bilgili, supra note 56, at 44.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Sunier, landman, Linden, Bilgili & Bilgili, supra note 56, at 70–71; Hassan, supra note 24, at 451–73.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Id. Google Scholar

⁶² Bayan vaizler. Google Scholar

⁶³ For a more detailed discussion of the growing role of women in the Diyanet, see Hassan, supra note 24, at 451–73.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ İştar B. Gözaydın, Management of Religion in Turkey: The Diyanet and Beyond, in Freedom of Religion and Belief in Turkey 20 (Özgür Heval Çınar & Mine Yıldırım eds., 2014).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ 80 Turkish Universities to Have Mosques, Top Religious Body Head Says, Hurriyet Daily News (Nov. 21, 2014), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/80-turkish-universities-to-have-mosques-top-religious-body-head-says-74650.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ “Yaygın din eğritimi daha aktif, daha verimli bir aracı olacaktır.” Google Scholar

⁶⁷ “Hiçbir zaman misyonerlik yapmayacak”; Mehmet Görmez'den ‘Diyanet Tv’ Aç ı klaması, TRT Haber (June 18, 2012), http://www.trthaber.com/haber/yasam/mehmet-gormezden-diyanet-tv-aciklamasi-45348.html; Diyanet Radyo yayına başlıyor, Anadolu Ajansi (July 8, 2013), https://aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/diyanet-radyo-yayina-basliyor/233725.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Full programming and scheduling may be found at Diyanet TV's website at: http://www.diyanet.tv/ (last visited Mar. 30, 2018).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Mustafa Akyon, A Mosque Reform on the Way?, Hurriyet Daily News (Sept. 27, 2008), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/; Sunier, Landman, Linden, Bilgili & Bilgili, supra note 56, at 68–70.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Sunier, Landman, Linden, Bilgili & Bilgili, supra note 56, at 51–53.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Müftü. Google Scholar

⁷² İzzet Er, Religious Services of the PRA, 98 The Muslim World 273–74 (2008); Rainer Hermann, Where Is Turkey Headed? Culture Battles in Turkey (Betsy Mayer trans., 2014).Google Scholar

⁷³ Sunier, Landman, Linden, Bilgili & Bilgili, supra note 56, at 52–53.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Gürpinar & Kenar, supra note 44, at 64–72.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ “Millet olarak biz de tarihin hemen her döneminde zorlu imtihanlardan geçtik. Varlığrımıza, inancımıza, mukaddesatımıza, huzurumuza kastedildi. Vicdanı körelmiş, insafını kaybetmiş güçler, bizi tarih sahnesinden silmek amacıyla Çanakkale'de olduğru gibi, Sakarya'da, Dumlupınar'da var güçleriyle üzerimize geldi. Bu ordular karşısında elimizde güçlü silahlarımız yoktu; fakat kalplerimiz iman doluydu. Gönüllerimiz birbirine sımsıkı bağrlıydı. Aynı secdede Rahman'a kul olmakla, aynı kıblede istikameti bulmakla, birbirimize verdiğrimiz değrerle, muhabbetimizle, birlik ve beraberlik ruhuyla bütün zorlukların üstesinden geldik. Din, ezan, bayrak ve mukaddesat uğrrunda Doğrusuyla, Batısıyla, Kuzeyiyle, Güneyiyle hep birlikte aynı safta mücadele ettik. Binlerce evladımızı şehit vererek bu toprakları hep birlikte vatan kıldık.” Diyanet İlleri Başkanlığrı, Çanakkale ve Birlik Ruhu, Diyanet (Mar. 18, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ “Bugün millet ve yaşadiğrimız coğrrafya olarak yine ağrır bir imtihandan geçiyoruz. Bizi birbirimize düşürmek, gücümüzü zayıflatmak isteyenler tarafından, ülkemiz, bir ateş çemberinin içerisine çekilmeye çalısılıyor… kardeşliğrimiz, birlik ve beraberliğrimiz, huzurumuz hedef alınıyor.” Id. Google Scholar

⁷⁷ “Yeter ki gözü dönmüş cinayet şebekelerine karşı, ‘sen’, ‘ben’ anlayişını bir kenara bırakıp ‘biz’ anlayışıyla yekvücut olalım.” Id. Google Scholar

⁷⁸ “Şehit kanlarıyla sulanmış vatan toprağrımız, bağrimsızlığrımızın sembolü bayrağrımız, islam'ın şiarı ezanımız, hâsılı bütün yüce değrerlerimiz birer emanettir. Bizlere düşen, bu emanetleri canımız gibi aziz saymaktır.” Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Mümin ve Emanet Bilinci, Diyanet (Aug. 19, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ “… bu millet her şart ve durumda hakkı savunmuş, medeniyetler kurmuş, dünyanın dört bir yanına medeniyetler taşımıştir… Birlik ve beraberliğrimizi, huzur ve kardeşliğrimizi korumalıyız.” Diyanet işleri Başkanlığı, En Büyük Bozgunculuk, Dinin Muazzez Değrerlerini İstismar Etmektir, Diyanet (July 29, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Şimdi Yaraları Sarma Zamanı, Diyanet (Feb. 5, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Seyhmus Cakan, Four Die in Violence in Turkey's Mainly Kurdish Southeast, Reuters (Jan. 18, 2016), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-kurds/four-die-in-violence-in-turkeys-mainly-kurdish-southeast-idUSKCN0UV0EJ; Turkey-PKK Conflict: Scores Dead in Clashes in Southeast, BBC (Jan. 27, 2016), http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35424525.Google Scholar

⁸² “Birliğrimizi sınayan, bütünlüğrümüzü hedef alan hain eller, vatanımızın bir köşesinde şiddeti tırmandırıyor.” Diyanet İsleri Başkanlığı, Şimdi Yaraları Sarma Zamanı, Diyanet (Feb. 5, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁸³ “Kimilerinin, masum insanları hunharca katletmeyi cihat, kendisiyle beraber kadın, erkek, çoluk-çocuk demeden insanları öldürmeyi şehadet zannetmesidir.” Google Scholar

⁸⁴ “Eli kanlı terör örgütleri”; Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Tehvid ve Vahdetin Öncüsü Müminler, Diyanet (Apr. 22, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ For concise summaries of the history of the relationship between the AKP and Gülenist movement and its implications for the failed July 2016 coup attempt, see Ahmed, Ayaz, Turkey's Attempted Coup and Its Possible Fallout, 19 Defence J. 22–29 (2016); Seda Demiralp, The Breaking Up of Turkey's Islamic Alliance: The AKP-Gülen Conflict and Implications for Middle East Studies, 20 Middle E. Rev. Int'l Aff. 1–7 (2016).Google Scholar

⁸⁶ “Nefsini, heva ve heveslerini ilahlaştıran zalimler.” Google Scholar

⁸⁷ “Kurtuluş beratı vaat edenleri, hakikatin sadece kendi elinde olduğrunu iddia edenler.” Google Scholar

⁸⁸ “Bu milletin arasına fitne ve fesat tohumları ekmek isteyen münafıklar, bozguncular.” Google Scholar

⁸⁹ “İmanımızı ve İslam'ımızı ifsat ve istismar etmek, sarsmak ve zedelemek isteyenler”; Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, En Büyük Bozgunculuk, Dinin Muazzez Değrerlerini istismar Etmektir, Diyanet (July 29, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/; Diyanet İçleri Başkanlığı, Kulluk sadece Allah'a Özgüdür, Diyanet (Aug. 5, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/; Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Mümin ve Emanet Bilinci, (Aug. 19, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ “Kulluk sadece Allah'a Özgüdür.” Google Scholar

⁹¹ “Nitekim Peygamberimizin vefatına bir türlü inanmak istemeyen bazı sahabilere Hz. Ebu Bekir'in şu uyarısı son derece dikkat çekicidir: ‘Kim Muhammed'e tapıyorsa bilsin ki Muhammed ölmüştür. Kim Allah'a kulluk ediyorsa bilsin ki Allah diridir, asla ölmez.‘” Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Kulluk sadece Allah'a Özgüdür, Diyanet (Aug. 5, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹² Gülen movement is fake Mahdi, says Turkey's Religious Directorate head, Hürriyet Daily News (Aug. 4, 2016), http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/gulen-movement-is-fake-mahdi-says-turkeys-religious-directorate-head-102487; FETÖ wolf in sheep's clothing, Gülen not a religious scholar, Daily Sabah (Aug. 3, 2016), https://www.dailysabah.com/war-on-terror/2016/08/04/feto-wolf-in-sheeps-clothing-gulen-not-a-religious-scholar.Google Scholar

⁹³ “Tevhit ve vahdet medeniyeti, insanları dil, renk, coğrrafya farklılıklarından dolayı ötekileştirmez. Bu medeniyetin mensupları, bütün insanları ya hilkatte eş ya dinde kardeş olarak kabul ederler.” Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Tehvid ve Vahdetin Medeniyeti, Diyanet (Apr. 15, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ “Çevremize karşı hak ehli olmak, onlara karsı şefkat, merhamet, insaf ve adaletle davranmaktır. Dili, ırkı, mezhep ve meşrebine bakmaksızın hiç kimsenin can, mal, onur ve haysiyetine dil uzatmamaktır.” Diyanet İşleri Başkanliğrı, Hak ve Hakikat, Diyanet (Mar. 25, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Diyanet İşleri Başkanliğrı, Hz. Peygamber, Tehvid ve Vahdet, Diyanet (Apr. 8, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ “Rengi rengine, dili diline, sesi sesine, gönlü gönlüne karışmış bir milletiz”; Diyanet İsleri Başkanlığı, Çanakkale ve Birlik Ruhu, Diyanet (Mar. 18, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ “Her türlü aşırılıktan uzak, mutedil bir ümmet.” Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, Tehvid ve Vahdetin Öncüsü Müminler, Diyanet (Apr. 22, 2016), http://www2.diyanet.gov.tr/.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ While imams trained in state-run religious schools lead Sunni congregations, Alevi communities are led by dedes who obtain their role through hereditary lineages of spiritual authority.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ For a more detailed discussion of relations between the Alevi population and the Turkish state in recent decades, see Erdemir, Aykan, Tradition and Modernity: Alevis' Ambiguous Terms and Turkey's Ambivalent Subjects, 41 Middle E. Stud. 944–45 (2005); İnce, supra note 22, at 151–58; Janina Karolewski, What is Heterodox About Alevism? The Development of Anti-Alevi Discrimination and Resentment, 48 Die Welt des Islams 449–55 (2008).Google Scholar

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¹⁰⁵ Sevgi Kuru Açikgöz, Kemalism and Post-Kemalism: Turkish State in Search of Palatable Citizen Forever, 5 Turk. J. Pol. 53–54 (2014).Google Scholar

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