1 The third pillar today covers intergovernmental cooperation in the field of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters (Title VI of the TEU).Google Scholar

2 See Missiroli, Antonio, European Security Policy: The Challenge of Coherence, 6 Eur. Foreign Aff. Rev. 177 (2001); Dashwood, Alan, External Relations Provisions of the Amsterdam Treaty, 35 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 1019 (1998).Google Scholar

3 See Timmermans, Christian, The Uneasy Relationship Between the Communities and the Second Union Pillar: Back to the Plan Fouchet?, 1 Legal Issues of the European Integration 61 (1996); Denza, Eileen, The Intergovernmental Pillars of the European Union 290 (2002).Google Scholar

4 The former Title VI of the TEU contained provisions on Justice and Home Affairs. After the revision of the treaties at Nice in 2001, Title VI now deals with Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters.Google Scholar

5 See Case C-91/05, Commission v. Council, 2008 E.C.R I-3651 [hereinafter ECOWAS case].Google Scholar

6 See Gauttier, Pascal, Horizontal Coherence and the External Competences of the European Union, 10 European Law Journal 23, 30 (2004). Other special provisions have been adopted in the field of financing second and third pillar measures, Treaty Establishing the European Community, art. 269 (2), Dec. 29, 2006, 2006 O.J. (C 321E) 179 [hereinafter TEC], and sanctions against Member States. See TEC art. 309; Treaty on European Union, art. 7, Dec. 29, 2006, 2006 O.J. (C 321E) 12–13 [hereinafter TEU].Google Scholar

7 Koutrakos, See Panos, Constitutional Idiosyncrasies and Political Realities: The Emerging Security and Defence Policy of the European Union, 10 Colum. J. Eur. L. 69 (2003) for the example of EU defence policy.Google Scholar

8 Case C-105/03, Pupino, 2005 E.C.R. I-5285.Google Scholar

9 Council Joint Action 2004/551/CFSP of 12 July 2004 on the establishment of the European Defence Agency, 2004 O.J. (L 245) 17. See EU Security and Defence – Core Documents 361 (2005) (Nicole Gnesotto ed., 2005) (reproducing a summary of the Code of Conduct, adopted in November 2005).Google Scholar

10 For a thorough analysis see Trybus, Martin, The New European Defence Agency: A Contribution to a Common European Security and Defence Policy and a Challenge to the Community acquis?, 43 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 667 (2006)Google Scholar

11 ECOWAS case, supra note 5. See also Joni Heliskoski, Small Arms and Light Weapons within the Union's pillar structure: An Analysis of Article 47 of the EU Treaty, 33 Eur. L. Rev. 898 (2008); Ooik, Ronald van, Cross-Pillar Litigation Before the ECJ: Demarcation of Community and Union Competences, 4 Eur. Const. L. Rev. 399 (2008) (providing an analysis of the case).Google Scholar

12 See Koutrakos, Panos, Primary Law and Policy in EU External Relations – Moving Away from the Big Picture, 33 Eur. L. Rev. 666 (2008).Google Scholar

13 See Wessel, Ramses, The Inside Looking Out: Consistency and Delimitation in EC External Relations, 37 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 1135 (2000); Weidel, Birgit, Regulation or Common Position – The Impact of the Pillar Structure on External Policy, in External Economic Relations and Foreign Policy in the European Union 50 (Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel eds., 2002); cf. Alan Dashwood, The Law and Practice of CFSP Joint Actions, in EU foreign relations law – the constitutional principles 71 (Marise Cremona & Bruno de Witte eds., 2008) (providing a different view).Google Scholar

14 See Eeckhout, Piet, External Relations of the European Union 141 (2004) (explaining the scope of Article 11 TEU).Google Scholar

15 See TEC arts. 133, 177, 181(a).Google Scholar

16 At least in theory, the defence industrial policy of the Member States is subject to, e.g., EC procurement law, merger control, state aid and free movement of goods. Only exceptionally can the States invoke Article 296 TEC. See Panos Koutrakos, Security and Defence Policy within the Context of EU External Relations, in European Security Law 249 (Martin Trybus & Nigel White eds., 2007); Eisenhut, Dominik, The Special Security Exemption of Article 296 EC: Time for a New Notion of “Essential Security Interests”?, 33 Eur. L. Rev. 577 (2008) (providing an analysis of the role of EC law in this field).Google Scholar

17 Wessel, Ramses, Fragmentation in the Governance of EU External Relations: Legal Institutional Dilemmas and the new Constitution for Europe, in The European Union – an ongoing Process of Integration 123 (Jaap de Zwaan, Jan Jans & Frans Nelissen eds., 2004).Google Scholar

18 See ECOWAS case, supra note 5, at paras. 76–78.Google Scholar

19 See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties art. 30(3), May 23, 1969, 115 U.N.T.S. 331.Google Scholar

20 Denza, , supra note 3, at 289; Krück, Hans, Selbständigkeit der Verträge, in 6 Kommentar zum Vertrag über die Europäische Union und zur Gründung der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (Hans von der Groeben & Jürgen Schwarze eds, 2003), margin number 7, with further references.Google Scholar

21 See Timmermans, , supra note 3, at 67.Google Scholar

22 Case C-170/96, Commission v. Council, 1998 E.C.R. I-2763 [hereinafter Airport Transit Visa case].Google Scholar

23 EC Joint Action 96/197/JAI of 4 March 1996, 1996 O.J. (L 63) 8.Google Scholar

24 Article 100 c of the TEC as amended by the Treaty of Maastricht concerned EC immigration policy and provided as follows: “The Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, shall determine the third countries whose nationals must be in possession of a visa when crossing the external borders of the Member States. […].”Google Scholar

25 Airport Transit Visa case, supra note 22, at paras. 15–16.Google Scholar

26 Id. at para. 17; see also 1998 E.C.R. I-2763, para. 11 (statement of AG Fennelly) (“I consider that the Court may interpret acts purporting to be adopted under Title VI of the Treaty on European Union, in order to determine whether or not they deal with matters which more properly fall within the Community sphere of competence as determined by Article M.”).Google Scholar

27 Case C-176/03, Commission v. Council, 2005 E.C.R. I-7879 [hereinafter Environmental Crimes case].Google Scholar

28 EC Framework Decision 2003/80/JHA of 27 January 2003 on the protection of the environment through criminal law, O.J. 2003 L 29/55.Google Scholar

29 Airport Transit Visa case, supra note 22, at para. 53.Google Scholar

30 Environmental Crimes case, supra note 27.Google Scholar

31 See Case C-440/05, Commission v. Council, 2007 E.C.R. I-9097 (discussing criminal law-measures under Title VI TEU on the one hand and action under Title V TEC (Transport) on the other); see also Herrmann, Christoph, Much Ado about Pluto? The ‘Unity of the Legal Order of the European Union’ Revisited, 5 EUI Working Papers RSCAS 6 (2007); Eeckhout, supra note 14, at 148.Google Scholar

32 ECOWAS case, supra note 5, at para. 23.Google Scholar

33 EC Decision 2004/833/CFSP of 2 December 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 359) 65.Google Scholar

34 EC Joint Action 1999/34/CFSP of 17 December 1998, 1999 O.J. (L 9) 1.Google Scholar

35 EC Council Document No. 15236/04 PESC 1039 of 25 November 2004.Google Scholar

36 The Cotonou-agreement of 23 June 2000, 2000 O.J. (L 317) 1, replaced the former Lomé-agreements and is an instrument of EU development policy within the framework of its association policy under Art. 310 TEC, concerning states in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific.Google Scholar

37 ECOWAS case, supra note 5, at para. 23.Google Scholar

38 Id. at paras. 42–55.Google Scholar

39 Id. at para. 30.Google Scholar

40 Id. at paras. 31–34.Google Scholar

41 Id. at paras. 98, 176 (Opinion of AG Mengozzi).Google Scholar

42 Id. at para. 59.Google Scholar

43 Id. at para. 60.Google Scholar

44 Id. at para. 62.Google Scholar

45 The Court did not annul the relevant Title II of Council Joint Action 2002/589/CFSP, because, as the Decision was illegal because of its own defects, this was not necessary in order to meet the Commission's aim. Id. at para. 111.Google Scholar

46 Id. at para. 72.Google Scholar

47 See Council Decision 2004/833/CFSP of 2 December 2004, 2004 O.J. (L 359) 65, Preamble para. (1). This is also expressed by Article 4(2) of the Decision, which establishes an obligation to monitor the consistency of the activities of the Union in the field of small arms and light weapons with regard to its development policies. This section demonstrates that development is only a secondary aim of the Decision, which primarily concerns security policy.Google Scholar

48 See ECOWAS case, supra note 5, at paras. 177–195 (Opinion of AG Mengozzi).Google Scholar

49 See Christophe Hillion & Ramses Wessel, Restraining External Competences of EU Member States under CFSP in EU foreign relations law – the constitutional principles 116 (Marise Cremona & Bruno de Witte eds., 2008) (writing prior to the ECOWAS judgment).Google Scholar

50 TEC art. 10(2).Google Scholar

51 Joint Cases C-402/05 and C-415/05, Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation, Judgment of 3 September 2008 [hereinafter Kadi case]. See Takis Tridimas & Jose Gutierrez-Fons, International Law and Economic Sanctions Against Terrorism: The Judiciary in Distress?, 32 Fordham Int'l L.J. 667 (2009) (analyzing the judgment of the ECJ in Kadi).Google Scholar

52 Kadi case, supra note 51, at para. 197. This understanding of Article 308 is reflected in the corresponding provision of the consolidated TFEU, which, in Article 352 (4), expressly excludes the evocation of CFSP objective with regard to that legal basis. See Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, art. 352 (4), May 9, 2008, 2008 O.J. (C 115) 1, 196.Google Scholar

53 Kadi case, supra note 51, at para. 202.Google Scholar

54 Timmermans, , supra note 3.Google Scholar

55 See Editorial Comments, The CFSP under the EU Constitutional Treaty – Issues of Depillarisation, 42 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 325 (2005); Koutrakos, , supra note 12, at 669. It has already been tried to find new terminological differentiations between CFSP and supranational law, speaking of “partial differentiation,” Bruno de Witte, The Constitutional Law of External Relations, in A Constitution for the European Union 163 (Ingolf Pernice & Miguel Poiares Maduro eds., 2004), or “structural differentiation.” Alan Dashwood, The Relationship Between the Member States and the European Union / European Community, 41 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 355, 363 (2004).Google Scholar

56 TEU Former art. 1(3).Google Scholar

57 TEU art. 1(3) sentence 2 as amended in Lisbon: “Those two Treaties shall have the same legal value.”Google Scholar

58 TEU art. 40 in its amended version reads as follows: “The implementation of the common foreign and security policy shall not affect the application of the procedures and the extent of the powers of the institutions laid down by the Treaties for the exercise of the Union competences referred to in Articles 3 to 6 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Similarly, the implementation of the policies listed in those Articles shall not affect the application of the procedures and the extent of the powers of the institutions laid down by the Treaties for the exercise of the Union competences under this Chapter.”Google Scholar

59 TEU art. 24 (1); TFEU art. 275.Google Scholar

60 See Cremona, Marise, A Constitutional Basis for Effective External Action? An Assessment of the Provisions on EU External Action in the Constitutional Treaty, EUI Working Paper Law No. 30, 17 (2006) (regarding the equivalent provisions of the Constitutional Treaty).Google Scholar

61 See Wessel supra note 17, at 133 for examples of “PESCialisation” of the TEC-policies within the current legal framework.Google Scholar

62 See Dougan, Michael, The Treaty of Lisbon 2007: Winning Minds, Not Hearts, 45 Common Mkt. L. Rev. 617, 626 (2008); but see Panos Koutrakos, EU International Relations Law 494 (2006) (contending that Article 40 contains the ratio of former TEU art. 47).Google Scholar

63 “Leiser Nachhall” (Translation by the Author); see Christoph Herrmann (together with Stefan Ohler & Rudolf Streinz), Der Vertrag von Lissabon zur Reform der EU 117 (2008).Google Scholar

64 Dashwood, , supra note 13, at 77.Google Scholar

65 See TFEU art. 3(1); see also Alan Dashwood, The Limits of European Community Powers, 21 Eur. L. Rev. 113 (1996) (discussing the scope of exclusive competences).Google Scholar

66 See Herrmann, supra note 31, at 15.Google Scholar

67 Pechstein, See Matthias, Das Kohärenzgebot als entscheidende Integrationsnorm der Europäischen Union, Europarecht 247 (1995) and Peter-Christian Müller-Graff, Einheit und Kohärenz der Vertragsziele von EG und EU, Europarecht Beiheft 2, 67 (1998) for the dispute regarding the current provisions.Google Scholar

68 Pechstein, , supra note 67, at 251.Google Scholar

69 See Gauttier, , supra note 6; Tietje, Christian, The Concept of Coherence in the Treaty on European Union and the Common Foreign and Security Policy, 2 Eur. Foreign Aff. Rev. 211 (1997); see also Kirsten Siems, Das Kohärenzgebot in der Europäischen Union und seine Justitiabilität 21 (1999) (providing an in depth-analysis).Google Scholar

70 Missiroli, Antonio, Coherence, Effectiveness and Flexibility for CFSP/ESDP, in Europeas ferne Streitmacht 124 (Erich Reiter, Reinhardt Rummel & Peter Schmidt eds., 2002).Google Scholar