Introduction
The transformation of society from mobile hunter-gatherers to settled farmers was completed in Neolithic times and became a point of ‘no return’ in human history. The nature and the origin of that transformation have always been of special interest in terms of guiding research on the Levantine Epipalaeolithic (c. 23–11.5 ka cal BP). The Late Epipalaeolithic Natufian culture (14.5–11.5 ka BP), characterised by stone-built dwellings, elaborate burial practices, objects d’art and personal decoration, is considered a threshold to Neolithic farming communities (Reference Bar-YosefBar-Yosef 1998). While agriculture practised by Natufian hunters was noted in Garrod’s (1932) very first publication of Natufian culture more than 80 years ago, the origin of that culture remains enigmatic. At the same time, large, open-air Early Epipalaeolithic sites discovered during the last decades provide some evidence of social complexity, arguably suggesting cultural continuity and the perception of the transition to agriculture in the Levant as a long, gradual and protracted process (summarised in Maher et al. 2012).
This paper introduces ‘En Qashish South (EQS), a large, open-air site incorporating superimposed Early Epipalaeolithic (Kebaran) and Natufian occupations. Exposed areas of knapping and butchering, remains of floors, structures, installations, abundant assemblages of flint, faunal remains, grinding and pounding tools as well as a number of objects d’art provide new data relevant for our understanding of that process.
‘En Qashish South: main characteristics
EQS is located in the north-west corner of the Jezreel Valley, between the eastern slopes of Mount Carmel and the Shefaram-Tiv’on Hills. The site is situated some 200m from the spring of ‘En Qashish and the perennial Qishon stream, which evidently played a major role in the formation of the site as well as in the preservation of its remains (Figure 1). Rescue excavations, directed by Yaroshevich on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, took place from November 2012 through to February 2013, prior to construction of a segment of Highway 6. The estimated size of the site is over 1000m2, of which 300m2 have been exposed.
a): Map indicating the location of EQS and other Epipalaeolithic sites in the region; (b): view of the site from the piedmont of Mount Carmel, looking north.
The lower, Early Epipalaeolithic layer is spatially continuous and shows organisation into several distinct spaces according to function. These include knapping floors with anvils, hammer-stones, numerous bladelet cores (Figure 2a), butchering areas with bones of wild cattle, fallow deer and gazelle (Figure 2b), precincts with stone installations cut into a layer rich in faunal remains and flint artefacts (Figure 3a). A bifacially engraved stone palette with ‘ladder’ pattern on one side and geometric design on the other (Figure 3b) was incorporated into one of the stone installations. The ‘ladder’ pattern closely resembles what was once a unique find from the Kebaran site of Urkan e-Rub in the Jordan Valley (Reference HoversHovers 1990). The affinity with the Early Epipalaeolithic, based initially on the dominance of non-geometric microliths (Figure 2c; Reference Bar-YosefBar-Yosef 1970; Reference Goring-MorrisGoring-Morris 1987; Reference HenryHenry 1995), was later supported by radiocarbon readings as well as OSL analysis, which date it as early as c. 24–23 ka cal BP.
a): Knapping locality; b): butchery locality; c): non-geometric microliths characteristic of the Early Epipalaeolithic.
a): Stone installation with the ‘ladder’ palette in the upper-left corner; b): the ‘ladder’ palette.
The basal deposit on which the Early Epipalaeolithic remains were encountered, a clay rich in concentrations of calcium carbonate, has a semi-circular ridge that clearly reflects the border of the archaeological layer, which we interpret as the remains of a dwelling structure (Figure 4a). A cache of artefacts found in proximity to the ridge includes eight pounding tools, two of which are exceptionally large, and carefully prepared limestone specimens (Figure 4b). Another significant find is a small limestone palette with an image resembling the head of a bird on one side and a geometric pattern on the other (Figure 5).
a): Semi-circular ridge of clay rich in concentrations of calcium carbonate, indicating a border of a hut-like structure, facing east; b & c): a partially exposed cache of pounding tools (see Figure 3b & c) is visible in close proximity to the scale marker.
The ‘bird’ palette.
Natufian remains. a): A wall-like structure incorporating a wild cattle horn, facing south; b): a close up of the horn, facing north; c) another installation incorporating a wild cattle horn and a large stone slab; d): microlithic lunates.
The superimposed layer consists of Natufian deposits associated with black clayey sediments, evidently representing ancient swamps created by flooding of the Qishon Basin. Its excavation yielded oval patches of distinctive, light-brown sandy sediment, possibly representing hut floors, as well as stone-built installations and segments of stone-built structures (Figure 6). Characteristic features of these Natufian constructions at the site include the incorporation of wild cattle horns and the erection of stone slabs. Basalt pestles, including one decorated with a meander design, and other engraved objects are notable additions to the assemblage of this period. The presence of numerous microlithic lunates provided the initial basis for the cultural ascription of this second layer at the site, which is now supported by the results of the radiocarbon analysis (c. 14.5 ka BP).
Conclusions
EQS is the largest open-air site incorporating both Early (Kebaran) and Late (Natufian) Epipalaeolithic remains that is known so far to the west of the Jordan Valley. Clear spatial organisation, evidence of dwelling structures, a variable diet and symbolic expressions during the early phase of the occupation are notable features of this site. Together with the superimposed, well-defined Natufian remains, they make EQS a key site for investigating the socio-economic dynamics preceding the establishment of Neolithic agricultural communities in the Levant.
Acknowledgements
The excavations were financed by the Highway 6 construction company. The authors are grateful to Yossi Levi, Karem Said, Limor Talmi, Yoni Amrani and Eli Bahar for administrative and logistic support, and to Ofer Marder and volunteer students from Ben-Gurion University, University of Haifa and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who helped to excavate the site. We also wish to thank Rivka Mishaev, Mendel Cahan, Mark Kunin, Avi Hadjian and Roy Liran for their field drawings and to Assaf Perez, Clara Amit and Gennady Spector for contributing their photographic skills. Thanks are also due to Leticia Barda, who prepared the regional map (Figure 1). Edwin C.M. van den Brink and Eliot Braun kindly perused earlier versions of this text. We offer special thanks to Ofer Bar-Yosef for his scientific advice and comments on previous drafts of this paper.
