A curious copper-alloy object resembling a miniature spear was discovered during excavations of the extramural settlement at the Roman fort of Inveresk (East Lothian) in 1976–77. The find (now within the collection of National Museums Scotland: X.FRI 104) is twisted, bent and heavily corroded, concealing much of the surface detail. The poor preservation made identification difficult and Gordon Thomas’s original report categorised the find as a possible decorative fastening.Footnote 1 This unusual object has seen no subsequent examination, but searching for stylistic and functional parallels has revealed further data about those inhabiting the Inveresk vicus, their roles, and how they constructed and displayed their identities.
Inveresk and its context
The site of Inveresk has been extensively excavated over the past 50 years, revealing evidence of a flourishing military complex with associated civilian activity.Footnote 2 Situated on high ground overlooking the River Esk, it provided a river crossing point and direct access to the coast. The fort was built as part of the Antonine advance into northern Britain, forming one of a series of forts along the coast to the east of the Antonine Wall. Excavations led by Gordon Thomas focused on the extensive extramural settlement and made Inveresk a key site in our understanding of the interaction between the fort and the surrounding communities. The vicus lay immediately east of the fort on the main access road, perfectly placed to service the needs of the fort and exploit trade routes along the road network.Footnote 3 Thomas recorded the context of this miniature spear as beside a stone-built circular feature in an area associated with industrial activity.Footnote 4 Re-investigation of the area by Mike Bishop in 2001 revealed the structure had a double flue, and the associated slag and industrial waste suggest it formed part of an enclosed hearth related to iron-working.Footnote 5
The object (Figs 1–2)
The object is formed of a copper-alloy shaft and leaf-shaped blade with an elongated point tapering towards the tip. The blade has a raised central rib flanked by circular perforations. A circular terminal below the blade holds a copper-alloy rivet which is still in situ. Heavy corrosion obscures the surface detail, but a horizontal bar is partially visible at the tip of the blade. The point is bent double and broken into three refitting pieces with a slightly rounded tip. It is likely the object was originally designed to lie flat, measuring 232 mm at its full length and 18 mm at maximum width. It lacks fittings to indicate its orientation with certainty. However, its construction suggests it lay with the circular terminal at the base. The central stem tapers slightly from the thin point of the blade to the terminus, suggesting this represented the pointed tip of the spear rather than a spear shaft.
Fig. 1. X.FRI 104, (left) obverse; (right) reverse (Images © National Museums Scotland, photography Neil McLean).
Fig. 2. Illustration of the copper-alloy miniature spear-shaped mount and reconstruction with tip unbent (Image © National Museums Scotland, illustration by Alan Braby).
Votive miniature weapons in Britain
At first sight, this object resembles a miniature votive spear. Miniature weapons are common among the assemblages from votive sites in Roman Britain. Copper-alloy representations of complete spears with long stems representing wooden shafts are found at the temple sites of Woodeaton (Oxfordshire), Uley (Gloucestershire) and Great Walsingham (Norfolk),Footnote 6 and among the huge deposit of votive material from the River Tees at Piercebridge (County Durham) (Fig. 3).Footnote 7 One example from Piercebridge includes the remains of a blade with circular perforations.Footnote 8 However, they differ markedly in detail from the Inveresk miniature, whose construction is not consistent with this type of votive weapon. The miniature spears from Woodeaton and Piercebridge are constructed of circular-sectioned shafts which terminate in hammered-out flattened heads. In contrast the Inveresk miniature is D-shaped in cross-section and the blade sits approximately 40 mm from the riveted terminal and 165 mm from the broken tip. This suggests it was not designed to be a miniature replica of a complete spear, but a representation of a spear head with an elongated point. It is also more intricate in detail than the votive spears, which present highly simplified versions of their full-scale counterparts. The central rib and perforations on the Inveresk spear indicate the maker or users of this item required a more accurate representation than was considered necessary for the votive miniatures.
Fig. 3. Miniature copper-alloy spears from the River Tees at Piercebridge (County Durham) (left) PAS BM-A0FDF8; (right) PAS BM-A08174 (reproduced courtesy of the Portable Antiquities Scheme/Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-SA 4.0).
Esposito has identified a number of spear-like objects with perforated blades or attached rings as ritual sceptres or ceremonial spears.Footnote 9 The examples from votive deposits at West Stow (Suffolk) and the temple site at Lowbury Hill (Berkshire) have circular perforations through the blade and are topped with knobbed terminals.Footnote 10 Although these are closer in size to some functional spear heads, their construction and design rendered them unsuitable as practical weapons and suggests they are more likely to belong to the category of votive miniatures or models.Footnote 11 It has been suggested these perforated sceptres were secured to a surface for display at temple sites prior to deposition.Footnote 12 Despite this, these votive spears were designed to be viewed as three-dimensional objects. In contrast, the Inveresk miniature has a flat, plain reverse and was designed to be viewed only from one side, suggesting it was permanently fixed to a surface using the surviving rivet. The inclusion of fittings on the Inveresk miniature makes it unlikely this object was designed for solely votive purposes. Kiernan reviewed key characteristics of purely votive miniatures and concluded the presence of fixtures indicates the object is more likely to have served primarily as a personal ornament or fitting.Footnote 13
Although the Inveresk spear does not conform to the style of votive miniature and ritual spears from Romano-British religious sites, its treatment is reminiscent of their deliberate mutilation. Three miniature votive spears from Woodeaton were bent double prior to deposition.Footnote 14 These acts formed part of the ritual process, to allow the object to be removed from the useable realm of the living to the realm of the deities for whom it was intended. The context of the Inveresk find, within an area of industrial working, provides no clear sign that it was part of a structured ritual deposit. However, the object may have been reused as a votive gift. A miniature object resembling a spear could be considered appropriate for ritual mutilation and deposition once it no longer served its original purpose.
Fig. 4. Iron beneficiarius lance from Hirten (Germany). Length 310.5 mm (© Illustration by B. Oesterwind; Oesterwind Reference Oesterwind2020, Abb. 3).
Fig. 5. Miniature, copper-alloy beneficiarius lance from Oudenburg (Belgium) (© Flanders Heritage Agency; Vanhoutte et al. Reference Vanhoutte, Dhaeze, Ervynck, Lentacker, Van Heesch and Stroobants2014, fig. 62.1).
The lances of the beneficiarii
As discussed above, the Inveresk miniature has a more realistic appearance than typical votive miniature spears. The blade is decorated with a prominent raised central rib and circular perforations which are not represented on the simplified votive miniatures. These features are paralleled in a distinct corpus of spear heads associated with soldiers of the beneficiarii which are characterised by leaf or heart-shaped blades bearing circular perforations or oblique slits and raised or elongated central ribs.Footnote 15
The beneficiarii were soldiers released from regular military duties to serve in the staff of a provincial governor. Soldiers among this group were responsible for provincial security and played a key role in controlling communication networks, acting as road police or overseeing the movement of resources across the provinces. The beneficiarii rotated around stations set up at strategic points in the road network or along border crossings.Footnote 16 Beneficiarii are widely attested across the Empire by the late second–early third century C.E. Their presence in Britain is recorded on an altar from Risingham (Northumberland), dedicated by the beneficiarius consulares Marcus Gavius Secundinus on his first tour of duty,Footnote 17 while the assemblage from the River Tees at Piercebridge includes two seals marked with the abbreviation for beneficiarius consulares.Footnote 18
Alföldi has suggested the beneficiarii carried a distinctive lance or standard as a symbol of their authority as they carried out their duties.Footnote 19 A large iron and bronze spear head with circular perforations was excavated at the second-century auxiliary fort at Osterburken (Germany).Footnote 20 The site included a station of the beneficiarii and a temple complex where six fragmented altars dedicated by soldiers identifying themselves as beneficiarii were discovered. Perhaps the closest stylistic parallel to the Inveresk spear is an iron beneficiarius lance found close to a grave site at Hirten (Germany) (Fig. 4).Footnote 21 The small leaf-shaped blade forms only 25% of the overall length, which is predominantly constructed of the elongated lance tip. The small horizontal bars framing the blade are also paralleled on the Inveresk spear although the detail is concealed by corrosion. The size and decorative form of these spear heads made them unlikely to function as effective weapons, but they could serve as emblems or standards denoting the presence and authority of these soldiers.Footnote 22 These stylised spear heads also appear as copper-alloy miniatures. A miniature copper-alloy lance head from the industrial area of the fort at Oudenburg (Belgium) displays the raised rib and circular perforations which characterise these symbolic lances (Fig. 5).Footnote 23 At only 80 mm in length, this example is unlikely to have served the same function as the large standards known from Osterburken or Ehl.Footnote 24 However, miniature representations of this style of spear head may have carried similar symbolism.
Representations of this distinctive lance became synonymous with the beneficiarii and are seen on altars and gravestones associated with soldiers serving in these offices across the provinces.Footnote 25 An altar from the south bank of the Vinxtbach (Germany), dedicated by a soldier who identifies himself as a beneficiarius consulares, is inscribed with an image representing the perforated lance (Fig. 6).Footnote 26 The consistent use of this emblem in association with dedications made by and for these soldiers suggests this image was recognised as a symbol unique to this office, and its application marked the dedicator or deceased as a member of this group.
Fig. 6. Altar from the south bank of the Vinxtbach (Germany) (© Ville de Liège, l’Institute Archéologique Liégeois I/689).
Displaying rank and identity
The lances from Hirten and Oudenburg are accurate three-dimensional representations of beneficiarius spear heads, in contrast to the spear from Inveresk. Its undecorated reverse suggests it functioned as a fitting or mount rather than a standard or model. Small fittings representing the long pointed and perforated lance of the beneficiarii are found across the provinces in the form of military belt mounts or strap ends accompanied by hanging pendants resembling a ring-pommel sword (Fig. 7).Footnote 27 Stefanie Hoss has discussed the importance of the military belt as a canvas for soldiers to display their rank and identity.Footnote 28 The lance emblem inscribed on altars and graves marked the individual as a soldier of the beneficiarii. These miniature fittings may have served a similar purpose as soldiers displayed their status by adorning themselves with the symbol of their unit.Footnote 29 One of the lance-shaped strap fittings from the fort at Zugmantel (Germany) closely parallels the design and construction of the Inveresk spear with its prominent central rib and horizontal bars (Fig. 7, centre).Footnote 30 The remains of a circular terminal for the attachment of a hanging pendant sits beneath the blade.Footnote 31 The striking similarities between this example and the style and construction of the Inveresk miniature strongly suggest both belong to this corpus of personal military fittings.
Fig. 7. (Left) Strap fitting and remains of ring-pommel sword pendant from Zugmantel (Germany) (Jacobi Reference Jacobi, Fabricus, Hettner and Sarwey1937, Taf. 10, 68); (centre) Strap fitting from Zugmantel (Jacobi Reference Jacobi, Fabricus, Hettner and Sarwey1937, Taf. 10, 82); (right) Bronze spear-shaped strap fitting from Cannstadt (Germany) (Kapf and Barthel Reference Kapf, Barthel, Fabricus, Hettner and Sarwey1914, Taf. 8).
Alföldi and Kovács have suggested the large beneficiarius standards were public proclamations of the power of the Roman governors and their representatives.Footnote 32 In contrast to this official mark of authority, the miniature belt fittings served as a more personal expression of identity. The lance symbol could only function as a proclamation of authority if it could be easily recognised by others. Representations seen on belt plates from Lepence (Hungary) and Silchester (Hampshire, UK) are so small they would be almost invisible to anyone other than the wearer.Footnote 33 On the Silchester example the emblem is hidden within a wider openwork design. Similarly, the lance-shaped strap ends are commonly between 40 and 70 mm in length, suggesting they were not designed to ensure the symbol was obvious to onlookers. These lance-shaped fittings share key characteristics, but their variability of form reveals they were not produced to exact specifications or using the same moulds. This suggests these fittings were not produced as standard pieces of equipment required by all beneficiarii but were commissioned individually by soldiers to mark and commemorate their military identity.
The strong stylistic parallels suggest the Inveresk miniature sits within the corpus of beneficiarius lance-shaped fittings. However, its size is inconsistent with the strap mounts or pendants which predominantly make up this type.Footnote 34 At a minimum of 232 mm, the spear is too large to function as a personal ornament. Although belt ornaments are the most common forms of lance-shaped fittings, the motif can be identified on a wider range of materials. Two beneficiarius lance mounts were found in grave contexts on the Pannonian frontier (Fig. 8). Both grave assemblages contained a chariot or four-wheeled wagon and Mráv suggests these larger mounts adorned the chariots and equipment of the beneficiarii rather than the soldiers themselves.Footnote 35 The few known examples of these mounts have a distribution restricted to Pannonia Inferior, but their discovery provides a context to suggest these fittings had wider applications than previously thought. The Inveresk miniature may represent an addition to the examples of lance-shaped mounts for the equipment of a beneficiarius.
Similarly, Aurrecoechea-Fernández, in his recent catalogue of spear-shaped insignia, discussed the possibility that some highly ornate mounts formed part of decorative fittings for dagger scabbards.Footnote 36 The circular terminal and rivet on the Inveresk fitting make it unlikely it belongs to this category. However, it further demonstrates the variety of ways soldiers utilised these symbols, making the Inveresk example an interesting addition to this growing corpus.
Fig. 8. Copper-alloy beneficiarius lance fitting from the wagon grave at Sárszentmiklós (Hungary) (length 298 mm) (© Hungarian National Museum Public Collection Centre, photograph A. Dabasi; Mráv Reference Mráv2011, Abb. 2).
Beneficiarii in Scotland
Beneficiarii are attested across the Roman frontiers. However, evidence for material culture associated with these soldiers is rare in Britain. British representations of a miniature beneficiarius-style lance with circular perforations are seen only in belt fittings from South Shields (Tyne and Wear) and Chesters (Northumberland) and in the decoration on the openwork belt plate from Silchester.Footnote 37 A further miniature beneficiarius lance-shaped emblem was recovered during work on the north curtain-wall at Housesteads (Northumberland) although its exact purpose is unclear.Footnote 38 These examples all display the characteristics typical of the beneficiarius lance emblems, but do not conform to a single stylistic tradition and none represents an exact parallel for the object from Inveresk.
The Inveresk miniature represents only the second piece of artefactual evidence linking the beneficiarii with activity in Scotland.Footnote 39 A ring-pommel sword pendant from the annexe at the nearby fort at Cramond (Edinburgh) forms the lower section of a strap fitting similar to the examples seen at Zugmantel (Fig. 7, left).Footnote 40 The upper section of these fittings typically displayed a lance head.Footnote 41 The presence of symbols associated with the beneficiarii at Cramond and Inveresk provides new evidence for these soldiers operating on the frontier in northern Britain and suggests there were individuals here who recognised and used the symbols typically associated with this office.
No exact parallels have been identified for the Inveresk miniature, but its form most closely resembles the stylistic traditions of the lance-shaped strap fittings accompanied by ring-pommel sword pendants. The presence of this style of fitting in Britain is unusual as their distribution is highly regionalised. Although the use of belt fittings depicting a spear emblem is widespread across the Roman Empire, there is a regionality of style among some fittings related to the beneficiarii. Footnote 42 The ring-pommel sword pendants and strap fittings constructed of heart or leaf-shaped blades framed by horizontal bars, as seen on the Inveresk miniature, are almost exclusively restricted to upper Germany (Fig. 9),Footnote 43 whereas the more globular lance-shaped baldric mounts with large eyes are more common in Dacia and Pannonia.Footnote 44 The discovery of this style of fitting at Inveresk and the ring-pommel sword pendant at Cramond suggests beneficiarii who served in upper Germany or soldiers from this area with knowledge of these stylistic traditions formed part of the garrison here.Footnote 45 Soldiers from the German provinces are attested epigraphically across Britain’s northern frontier. Two inscribed altars from Birrens (Dumfries and Galloway) record dedications by soldiers who identify themselves as members of Germanic tribes or cohorts made up of German recruits.Footnote 46 Similarly, the dedicator of an altar from Castlecary (Falkirk), now lost, describes himself as a member of the Mattiaci.Footnote 47 Evidence for the movement of troops from Germany to the frontier in Britain may explain the Inveresk miniature’s similarity to the forms traditionally used on the German limes. The individual who commissioned the Inveresk miniature had either been deployed along the German frontier or had come into contact with soldiers who used these traditions to display their military identity.
Fig. 9. Distribution map of sites where beneficiarius lance-shaped strap fittings have been recorded. 1 Inveresk, UK; 2 South Shields, UK (Bishop and Coulston Reference Bishop and Coulston2006); 3 Niederbieber, Germany (Behrens Reference Behrens1941); 4 Watch tower 96, Wetterau limes, Germany (Fabricus Reference Fabricus, Fabricus, Hettner and Sarwey1936); 5 Zugmantel, Germany (Jacobi Reference Jacobi1910); 6 Saalburg, Germany (Behrens Reference Behrens1941); 7 Weisenau, Germany (Miks Reference Miks2007); 8 Heddernheim, Germany (Hundt Reference Hundt1955); 9 Stockstadt, Germany (Behrens Reference Behrens1941); 10 Wallstadt, Germany (Alföldi Reference Alföldi1959); 11 Osterburken, Germany (Oldenstein Reference Oldenstein1976); 12 Cannstadt, Germany (Alföldi Reference Alföldi1959); 13 Buch, Germany (Behrens Reference Behrens1941); 14 Kösching, Germany (Behrens Reference Behrens1941); 15 Olten, Switzerland (Alföldi Reference Alföldi1959); 16 Carnuntum, Austria (Kovács Reference Kovács and Visy2005); 17 Acquincum, Hungary (Kovács Reference Kovács and Visy2005); 18 Vrsac, Serbia (Alföldi Reference Alföldi1959). Base map © Frontiers of the Roman Empire Project, Deutsche Limeskommission CC BY-NC 3.0.
Fig. 10. Possible stations of the beneficiarii in northern Britain. 1 Catterick Bridge; 2 Binchester; 3 Lanchester; 4 Risingham; 5 Inveresk; 6 Lancaster; 7 Greta Bridge; 8 Vindolanda and Housesteads; ? Newstead.
Beneficiarii at Inveresk and its place in Roman Scotland
The presence of a fitting evoking a miniature beneficiarius lance suggests there were individuals at Inveresk whose position was linked to this group and provides new evidence for the role the site played in the administration and security of the Antonine northern frontier. Beneficiarii were stationed at key strategic points from which they could effectively oversee the movement of resources and administration across the provinces. The position of Inveresk is consistent with the locations of other stations of the beneficiarii. The fort represented a key point in the communications network, controlling access by both land and sea. Here, the route of Dere Street converged with a road from the south-west and another westwards connecting the forts along the Forth to the Antonine Wall.Footnote 48
Rankov has catalogued inscribed altars and gravestones recording the presence of beneficiarii at sites across Britain. He argued the presence of such enduring and public dedications suggests these locations served as more permanent stations for soldiers associated with the beneficiarii. All the stations attested in northern Britain lie along the major road networks to Hadrian’s Wall and beyond. Of the seven sites believed to have served as stations for beneficiarii, four lie along the route of Dere Street at Catterick Bridge (Yorkshire), Binchester (County Durham), Lanchester (County Durham) and Risingham (Northumberland). A station at Inveresk would represent another key point in the chain along the main communication route into northern Britain (Fig. 10).Footnote 49
The scale of the extramural settlement at Inveresk attests to its prominence and role in the structure of Antonine Scotland. Two altars from the site record dedications by the imperial procurator Quintus Lucius Sabinianus, while a tombstone commemorates a member of the provincial governor’s bodyguard.Footnote 50 The presence of agents of the highest levels of provincial government suggests Inveresk played a prominent role in enforcing imperial control in Britain and it is likely soldiers of the beneficiarii would have been stationed here on a permanent basis. This fitting represents material evidence to suggest such a station and may have marked the equipment used by a beneficiarius posted here.
Conclusion
Although no exact parallels for this unusual object have been identified, its style and construction add further detail to our interpretation of the communities at Inveresk and its place within the fabric of Antonine Scotland. Stylistic parallels are found among the corpus of perforated lance fittings marking a person or object associated with the beneficiarii. Its presence indicates soldiers associated with this office were operating at Inveresk and used this symbol to express their membership of this group. The highly regionalised style of this fitting suggests the Inveresk miniature was influenced by traditions typically used by soldiers from upper Germany, adding further evidence for the impact of the movement of troops across the western provinces on how soldiers expressed their identities. The evidence from Inveresk is consistent with similar sites of operation for the beneficiarii and the vicus is a likely candidate for the location of a station from which these soldiers could effectively administer control of this northern frontier. The presence of a beneficiarius lance emblem at Inveresk further highlights the importance of the site as a focal point for administration and imperial control in Roman Scotland.
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