Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-t6st2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-19T08:31:06.746Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mode 3 Technologies and the Evolution of Modern Humans

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 December 2008

Robert Foley  and
Marta Mirazón Lahr
Robert Foley
Affiliation:
Human Evolutionary Biology Research GroupDepartment of Biological AnthropologyUniversity of CambridgeDowning Street Cambridge CB2 3DZUK
Marta Mirazón Lahr
Affiliation:
Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de BiociênciasUniversidade de São PauloRua do Matão, Travessa 15, N° 321 05508-900, Cidade Universitária São PaoloBrazil
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The origins and evolution of modern humans has been the dominant interest in palaeoanthropology for the last decade, and much archaeological interpretation has been structured around the various issues associated with whether humans have a recent African origin or a more ancient one. While the archaeological record has been used to support or refute various aspects of the theories, and to provide a behavioural framework for different biological models, there has been little attempt to employ the evidence of stone tool technology to unravel phylogenetic relationships. Here we examine the evidence that the evolution of modern humans is integrally related to the development of the Upper Palaeolithic and similar technologies, and conclude that there is only a weak relationship. In contrast there is a strong association between the evolution and spread of modern humans and Grahame Clark's Mode 3 technologies (the Middle Stone Age/Palaeolithic). The implications of this for the evolution of Neanderthals, the multiple pattern of human dispersals, and the nature of cognitive evolution, are considered.

Information

Type
Articles
Information
Cambridge Archaeological Journal , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , April 1997 , pp. 3 - 36
Copyright
Copyright © The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aiello, L.C. & Dunbar, R.I.M., 1993. Neocortex size, group size, and the evolution of language. Current Anthropology 95, 73–96.Google Scholar
Aitken, M.J. & Valladas, H., 1992. Luminescence dating relevant to human origins. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 337, 139–44.Google ScholarPubMed
Aitken, M.J., Stringer, C.B. & Mellars, P.A. (eds.), 1993. The Origins of Modem Humans and the Impact of Chronometric Dating. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allchin, B. & Allchin, R., 1982. The Rise of Civilization in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Allsworth–Jones, P., 1986. The Szeletian and the Transition from the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic in Central, Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Allsworth–Jones, P., 1993. The archaeology of archaic and early modern Homo sapiens: an African perspective. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 3(1), 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambergen, A.W. & Schaafsma, W., 1984. Interval estimates for posterior probabilities, applications to Border Cave, in van Vark & Howells (eds.), 115–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambrose, S., 1996. Lithic raw material, exploitation patterns in the LSA of East Africa. Paper presented at the SAA Meetings, New Orleans, April 1996.Google Scholar
Anderson, D.D., 1987. A Pleistocene–early Holocene rock shelter in peninsular Thailand. National Geographic Research 3, 184–98.Google Scholar
Andrews, P., 1984. On the characters that define Homo erectus. Courier Forshung Senckenbergensis 69, 167–75.Google Scholar
Arambourg, C. & Balout, L., 1955. L'ancien lac de Tihodaine et ses gisements préhistoriques, in Congrès Panafrican de Préhistoire, Algiers, 1952, ed. Balout, L.. Paris: Arts et Métiers Graphiques, 281–92.Google Scholar
Arensburg, B., Schepartz, L.A., Tillier, A., Vandermeersch, B. & Rak, Y., 1990. A reappraisal of the anatomical basis for speech in Middle Paleolithic hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83, 137–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arkell, A.J., 1964. Wanyanga and an Archaeological Reconnaissance of the South West Libyan Desert: the British Ennedi Expedition 1957. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Armour, J.A.L., Anttinen, T., May, C.A., Vega, E.E., Sajantila, A., Kidd, J.R., Kidd, K.K., Bertranpetit, J., Paabo, S. & Jeffreys, A.J., 1996. Minisatellite diversity supports a recent African origin for modern humans. Nature Genetics 13, 154–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arsuaga, J.-L., Martinez, I., Gracia, A., Carretero, J.-M. & Carbonell, E., 1993. Three new human skulls from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site in Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain. Nature 362, 534–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arsuaga, J.-L., Bermudez de Castro, J.-M. & Carbonell, E., 1994. La Sierra de Atapuerca: los hominidos y sus actividades. Revista de Arqueologia 15, 12–25.Google Scholar
Asfaw, B., Beyene, Y., Suwa, G., Walter, R.C., White, T.D., Woldegabriel, G. & Yemane, T., 1992. The earliest Acheulean from Konso-Gardula. Nature 360, 732–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avise, J.C. & Wollenberg, K., in press. Phylogenetics and the Origin of Species.Google Scholar
Bahn, P.G. & Vertut, J., 1988. Images of the Ice Age. New York (NY): Facts on File.Google Scholar
Balout, L. (ed.), 1955. Actes du 2e. Congrès Panafricain de Préhistoire. Paris.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., 1992. Middle Palaeolithic chronology and the transition to the Upper Palaeolithic in southwest Asia, in Bräuer & Smith (eds.), 261–72.Google Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., 1993. The role of western Asia in modern human origins, in Aitken et al. (eds.), 132–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., 1994. The Lower Palaeolithic of the Near East. Journal of World Prehistory 8, 211–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Yosef, O., Arnold, M., Belfer-Cohen, A., Goldberg, P., Housley, R., Laville, H., Meignen, L., Mercier, N., Vogel, J.C. & Vandermeersch, B., 1996. The dating of the Upper Paleolithic layers in Kebara Cave, Mt Carmel. Journal of Archaeological Science 23, 297–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbujani, G., 1996. Evolution of mitochondrial diversity in a linguistic isolate, the Ladins. Paper presented in the 9th International Congress of Human Genetics, Rio de Janeiro, 18–23 August, 1996.Google Scholar
Bellwood, P.S., 1990. From late Pleistocene to early Holocene in Sundaland, in Gamble & Soffer (eds.), 155–63.Google Scholar
Berger, T.D. & Trinkaus, E., 1995. Patterns of traumas among the Neandertals. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 841–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, C.A. & Stringer, C.B., 1989. Fifty years after: Egbert, an early Upper Palaeolithic juvenile from Ksar Akil, Lebanon. Paléorient 15(2), 99–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biberson, P., 1961. Le cadre paleogeographique de la Préhistoire de Maroc Atlantique. Publications du Service des Antiquites du Maroc 1, 37–92.Google Scholar
Binford, L.R., 1973. Interassemblage variability — the Mousterian and the ‘functional’ argument, in The Explanation of Culture Change, ed. Renfrew, C.. London: Duckworth, 227–54.Google Scholar
Binford, L.R., 1981. Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. New York (NY): Academic Press.Google Scholar
Binford, L.R., 1984. Faunal Remains from Klasies River Mouth. New York (NY): Academic Press.Google Scholar
Binford, L.R., 1989. Isolating the transition to cultural adaptations: an organizational approach, in The Emergence of Modern Humans, ed. Trinkaus, E.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 18–41.Google Scholar
Bischoff, J.L., Soler, N., Maroto, J. & Julia, R., 1989. Abrupt Mousterian/Aurignacian boundary at c. 40 ka bp: accelerator 14C dates from l'Abreda Cave (Catalunia, Spain). Journal of Archaeological Sciences 16, 563–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, B. & Schwarcz, H., 1986. U–series analyses of the lower travertine at Ehringsdorf, DDR. Quaternary Research 25, 215–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bordes, F., 1950. Principes d'une méthode d'étude des techniques et de la typologie du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. L'Anthropologie 54, 19–34.Google Scholar
Bordes, F., 1961a. Typologie du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. (Memoire 1.) Bordeaux: Institut de Préhistoire de l'Université de Bordeaux.Google Scholar
Bordes, F., 1961b. Mousterian cultures in France. Science 134, 803–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosinski, G. von, 1986. Archäologie des Eiszeitalters. Mainz: Verlag.Google Scholar
Bourdier, F., 1976. Les industries paléolithiques antewurmiennes dans le Nord–Ouest, in La Préhistoire Française, ed. de Lumley, H.. Paris: CNRS, 956–63.Google Scholar
Bowcock, A.M., Kidd, J.R., Mountain, J.L., Hebert, J.M., Carotenuto, L., Kidd, K.K. & Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., 1991. Drift, admixture, and selection in human evolution: a study with DNA polymorphisms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 8, 839–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowcock, A.M., Ruiz-Linares, A., Tomfohrde, J., Minch, E., Kidd, J.R. & Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., 1994. High resolution of human evolutionary trees with polymorphic microsatellites. Nature 368, 455–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bräuer, G., 1989. The evolution of modern humans: a comparison of the African and non–African evidence, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 123–54.Google Scholar
Bräuer, G., 1992. Africa's place in the evolution of Homo sapiens, in Bräuer & Smith (eds.), 83–98.Google Scholar
Bräuer, G., 1994. How different are Asian and African Homo erectus? Courier Forshung Senckenbergensis 171, 301–18.Google Scholar
Bräuer, G. & Mbua, E., 1992. Homo erectus features used in cladistics and their variability in Asian and African hominids. Journal of Human Evolution 22, 79–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bräuer, G. & Smith, F.H. (eds.), 1992. Continuity or Replacement? Controversies in Homo sapiens Evolution. Rotterdam: Balkema.Google Scholar
Brooks, A.S. & Yellen, J.E., 1989. An archaeological prespective on the African origins of modern humans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78, 197.Google Scholar
Brooks, A.S., Helgren, D.M., Cramer, J.S., Franklin, A., Hornyak, W., Keating, J.M., Klein, R.G., Rink, W.J., Schwarcz, H.P., Smith, J.N.L., Stewart, K., Todd, N.E., Verniers, J. & Yellen, J.E., 1995. Dating and context of three Middle Stone Age sites with bone points in the Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268, 548–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, W.M., 1980. Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 77, 3605–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabrera, V. & Bischoff, J.L., 1989. Accelerator 14C dates for early Upper Palaeolithic (Basal Aurignacian) at El Cstillo CAve (Spain). Journal of Archaeological Sciences 16, 577–84.Google Scholar
Campbell, N.A., 1984. Some aspects of allocation and discrimination, in van Vark & Howells (eds.), 177–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camps, G., Delibrias, G. & Thommeret, J., 1973. Chronologie des civilisations préhistoriques du Nord de l'Afrique d'après le radiocarbone. Libyca 21, 65–89.Google Scholar
Cann, R.L., Stoneking, M. & Wilson, A.C., 1987. Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature 325, 31–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carbonell, E., Bermudez de Castro, J.-M., Arsuaga, J.-L., Diez, J.C., Rosas, A., Cuence-Bescos, G., Sala, R., Mosquera, M. & Rodriguez, X.P., 1995. Lower Pleistocene hominids and artefacts from Atapuerca-TD6 (Spain). Science 269, 826–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carson, H.L., 1975. The genetics of speciation at the dip–loid level. American NaturalistM 109, 83–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspari, R. & Wolpoff, M.H., 1990. The morphlogical affinities of the Klasies River Mouth skeletal remains. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 81, 203.Google Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., Piazza, A. & Menozzi, P., 1994. History and Geography of Genes. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, C. & Olsen, J.W., 1990. China at the last glacial maximum, in Soffer & Gamble (eds.), 276–95.Google Scholar
Chen, T. & Zhang, Y., 1991. Palaeolithic chronology and possible co–existence of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens in China. World Archaeology 23, 147–54.Google Scholar
Childe, V.G., 1956. Piecing Together the Past. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Churchill, S.E., 1996. Particulate versus integrated evolution of the upper body in Late Pleistocene humans: a test of two models. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 100, 559–83.3.0.CO;2-L>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, G.A., 1992. Continuity or replacement? Putting modern humans in evolutionary context, in The Middle Palaeolithic: Adaptation, Behaviour and Variability, eds. Dibble, H.L. & Mellars, P.A.. Philadelphia (PA): University of Pennsylvania Museum, 626–76.Google Scholar
Clark, G.A. & Lindly, J., 1989. The case of continuity: observations on the biocultural transition in Europe and Western Asia, in Mellars & Stringer, 626–76.Google Scholar
Clark, G.A. & Lindly, J., 1991. On paradigmatic biases and Palaeolithic research traditions. Current Anthropology 32, 577–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J.D., 1951. The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Clark, J.D., 1989. The origins and spread of modern humans: a broad perspective on the African evidence, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 565–88.Google Scholar
Clark, J.D., 1992. African and Asian perspectives on the origins of modern humans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B 337, 148–78.Google ScholarPubMed
Clark, J.D., 1993. The Aterian of the central Sahara, in Krzyzaniak et al. (eds.), 49–68.Google Scholar
Clark, J.D., de Heinzelin, J., Schick, K.D., Hart, W.K., White, T.D., WoldeGabriel, G., Walter, R.C., Suwa, G., Asfaw, B., Vrba, E. & -Selassie, Y.H., 1994. African Homo erectus: old radiometric ages and young Oldowan assemblages in the Middle Awash valley, Ethiopia. Science 264, 1907–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J.D. & Schick, K.D., 1988. Context and content: impressions of Palaeolithic sites and assemblages in the People's Republic of China. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 439–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J.G.D., 1977. World Prehistory: a New Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Clarke, D.L., 1968. Analytical Archaeology. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Close, A., 1993. BT–14, a stratified Middle Palaeolithic site at Bir Tarfawi, Western Desert of Egypt, in Krzyzaniak et al. (eds.), 113–27.Google Scholar
Collins, D., 1986. Palaeolithic Europe: a Theoretical and Systematic Study. Tiverton: Clayhanger Books.Google Scholar
Coltori, M., Cremaschi, M., Delitala, M.C., Esu, D., Fornaseri, M., McPherson, A., Nicoletti, M., van Otterloo, R., Peretto, C., Sala, B., Schmidt, V. & Sevink, J., 1981. Reversed magnetic polarity at an early Lower Palaeolithic site in central Italy. Nature 300, 173–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corruccini, R.S. & Ciochon, R.L. (eds.), 1994. Integrative Paths to the Past: Paleoanthropological Advances in Honor of F. Clark Howell. Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Davidson, I. & Noble, W., 1989. The archaeology of perception: traces of depiction and language. Current Anthropology 30, 125–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, R.S., 1990. Central Asian hunter-gatherers at the Last Glacial Mazimum, in Soffer & Gamble (eds.), 267–75.Google Scholar
De Villiers, H., 1973. Human skeletal remains from Border Cave, Ingwaruma district, Kwa Zulu, South Africa. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 28, 229–56.Google Scholar
De Villiers, H. & Fatti, L.P., 1982. The antiquity of the Negro. South African Journal of Science 78, 321–32.Google Scholar
Deacon, H.J., 1989. Late Pleistocene palaeoecology and archaeology in the southern Cape, South Africa, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 547–64.Google Scholar
Deacon, H.J. & Shuurman, R., 1992. The origins of modern people: the evidence from Klasies River, in Bräuer & Smith (eds.), 121–9.Google Scholar
Dreyer, T.F., 1935. A human skull from Florisbad. Proceedings of the Academy of Science Amsterdam 38, 119–28.Google Scholar
Etler, D.A., 1994. The Chinese Hominidae: New Finds, New Interpretations. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Ferris, S., Brown, W., Davidson, W., et al., 1981. Extensive polymorphism in the mitochondrial DNA of apes Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 78, 6319–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foley, R.A., 1987. Hominid species and stone tools assemblages: how are they related? Antiquity 61, 380–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foley, R.A., 1989. The ecological conditions of speciation: a comparative approach to the origins of anatomically modern humans, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 298–320.Google Scholar
Foley, R.A., 1996. Measuring the cognition of extinct hominids, in Modelling the Early Human Mind, eds. Mellars, P. & Gibson, K.. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 57–66.Google Scholar
Foley, R.A. & Lee, P.C., 1991. Ecology and energetics of encephalization in hominid evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, Series B 334, 223–32.Google ScholarPubMed
Franciscus, R.G. & Trinkaus, E., 1988. Nasal morphology and the emergence of Homo erectus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 75, 517–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frayer, D.W., Wolpoff, M.H., Thome, A.G., Smith, F.H. & Pope, G., 1993. Theories of modern human origins: the palaeontological test. American Anthropologist 95, 14–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, L.G., 1994. Torralba and Ambrona: a review of discoveries, in Corruccini & Ciochon (eds.), 597–637.Google Scholar
Fullagar, R.L.K., Price, D.M. & Head, L.M., 1996. Early human occupation of Northern Australia: Jinmium rock shelter. Antiquity 70, 751–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabunia, L. & Vekua, A., 1995. A Plio–Pleistocene hominid from Dmanisi, East Georgia, Caucasus. Nature 373, 509–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gamble, C., 1986. The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gamble, C., 1993. Timewalkers: the Prehistory of Global Colonization. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gamble, C. & Soffer, O. (eds.), 1990. The World at 18,000 BP, vol. 2: Low Latitudes. London: Unwin Hyman.Google Scholar
Gibson, K. & Ingold, T. (eds.), 1993. Tools, Language and Cognition in Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goodwin, A.J.H. & van Riet Lowe, C., 1919. The Stone Age cultures of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 27, 1–289.Google Scholar
Goren-Inbar, N., Belitsky, S., Verosub, K., Werker, E., Kislev, M., Heimann, A., Carmi, I. & Rosenfeld, A., 1992. New discoveries at the Middle Pleistocene Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel. Quaternary Research 38, 117–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gowlett, J.A.J., 1980. Acheulean sites in the central Rift Valley, Kenya, in Proceedings of the 8th Panafrican Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, Nairobi, 1977, eds. Leakey, R.E. & Ogot, B.A.. Nairobi: TILLMIAP, 213–17.Google Scholar
Green, H.S. (ed.), 1984. Pontnewydd Cave: a Lower Palaeolithic hominid site in Wales: the First Report. Cardiff: Natural History Museum, Wales.Google Scholar
Groves, C.P., 1989. A regional approach to the problem of the origin of modern humans in Australasia, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 274–85.Google Scholar
Groves, C.P., 1992. How old are subspecies? A tiger's eyeview of human evolution. Perspectives in Human Biology 2, 153–60.Google Scholar
Groves, C.P. & Lahr, M.M., 1994. A bush not a ladder: speciation and replacement in human evolution. Perspectives in Human Biology 4, 1–11.Google Scholar
Grün, R. & Stringer, C.B., 1991. Electron spin resonance dating and the evolution of modern humans. Archaeometry 33, 153–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grün, R., Brink, J.S., Spooner, N.A., Taylor, L., Stringer, C.B., Franciscus, R.G. & Murray, A.S., 1996. Direct dating of Florisbad hominid. Nature 382, 500–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grün, R., Huang, P.H., Huang, W., McDermott, F., Stringer, C.B., Thorne, A. & Yan, G., in press. ESR and U–series analyses of teeth from the palaeoanthro–pological site of Hexian, Anhui Province, China. Journal of Human Evolution.Google Scholar
Habgood, P.J., 1989. The origin of anatomically modern humans in Australasia, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 245–73.Google Scholar
Haigh, J. & Maynard Smith, J., 1972. Population size and protein variation in Man. Genetic Research 19, 73–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammer, M.F., 1995. A recent common ancestry for human Y chromosomes. Nature 378, 376–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpending, H.C., Sherry, S.T., Rogers, A.R. & Stoneking, M., 1993. The genetic structure of ancient human populations. Current Anthropology 34, 483–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, T., 1959. New archaeological and ethnological results from the Niah caves, Sarawak. Man 59, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrold, F.B., 1989. Mousterian, Châtelperronian and early Aurignacaian in western Europe: continuity or discontinuity?, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 677–713.Google Scholar
Hasegawa, M., di Rienzo, A. & Wilson, A.C., 1993. Toward a more accurate timescale for the human mitochondrial DNA tree. Journal of Molecular Evolution 37, 347–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, R., 1987. Geology of the Laetoli area, in Laetoli: a Pliocene site in Northern Tanzania, eds. Leakey, M.D. & Harris, J.M.. London: Oxford University Press, 23–47.Google Scholar
Horai, S. & Hayasaka, K., 1990. Intraspecific nucleotide sequence differences in the major noncoding region of human mitochondrial DNA. American Journal of Human Genetics 46, 28–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Horai, S., Kondo, R., Nakagawa-Hattori, Y., Hayashi, S., Sonoda, S. & Tajima, K., 1993. Peopling of the Americas, founded by four major lineages of mitochondrial DNA. Molecular Biology and Evolution 10, 23–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Horai, S., Hayasaka, K., Kondo, R., Tsugane, K. & Takahata, N., 1995. Recent African origin of modern humans revealed by complete sequences of hominoid mitochondrial DNAs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 92, 532–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howell, F.C., 1966. Observations on the earlier phases of the European Lower Paleolithic. American Anthropologist 68, 88–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howells, W.W., 1976. Explaining modern man: evolutionists versus migrationists. Journal of Human Evolution 5, 477–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, W., Ciochon, R.L., Yumin, G., Larick, R., Fang, Q., Schwarcz, H., Yonge, C., de Vos, J. & Rink, W., 1995. Early Homo and associated artefacts from Asia. Nature 378, 275–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Hublin, J.-J., 1993. Recent human evolution in northwest Africa, in Aitken et al. (eds.), 118–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hublin, J.-J., 1996. Beyond the Garden of Eden. Nature 381, 658–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hublin, J.-J. & Tillier, A.M., 1992. L'Homo sapiens en Europe occidentale; gradualisme et rupture, in Aux origines d'Homo sapiens, eds. Hublin, J.J. & Tillier, A.M.. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 291–327.Google Scholar
Hublin, J.-J., Barroso Ruiz, C., Medina Lara, P., Fontugne, M. & Reyss, J.-L., 1995. The Mousterian site of Zafarraya (Andalusia, Spain) — dating and implications on the paleolithic peopling processes of Western Europe. Comptes rendues de l'Academie Nationale des Sciences, Paris 36, 931–7.Google Scholar
Hublin, J.-J., et al., 1996. The Neanderthal enigma: solving the mystery of modern human origins. Nature 381, 658–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, G.Ll., 1978. Food sharing and human evolution: archaeological evidence from the Plio-Pleistocene of East Africa. Journal of Anthropological Research 34, 311–24.Google Scholar
Jia, L. & Huang, W., 1985. The late Palaeolithic in China, in Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic Archaeology in the People's Republic of China, eds. Wu, R. & Olsen, J.W.. Orlando (FL): Academic Press, 211–23.Google Scholar
Jones, J.S. & Rouhani, S., 1986. How small was the bottleneck? Nature 319, 449–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorde, L., Watkins, W., Bamshad, M., et al., 1994. Worldwide genetic variation in tetranucleotide repeat polymorphisms, restriction site polymorphisms, and mitochondrial DNA sequence. Amerian Journal of Human Genetics 55, A154.Google Scholar
Kamminga, J. & Wright, R.V.S., 1989. The Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian and the origins of the Mongoloids. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 739–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, G.E., 1991. On the autapomorphic traits of Homo erectus. Journal of Human Evolution 20, 375–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, K.A.R. & Deraniyagala, S.U., 1989. Fossil remains of 28,000 year old hominids from Sri Lanka. Current Anthropology 30, 394–9.Google Scholar
Klein, R.G., 1992. The archaeology of modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthropology 1, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R.G., 1994. Southern Africa before the Iron Age, in Corruccini & Ciochon (eds.), 471–519.Google Scholar
Klein, R.G., 1995. Anatomy, behaviour, and modern human origins. Journal of World Prehistory 9, 167–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, C., Power, C. & Watts, I., 1995. The human symbolic revolution: a Darwinian account. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 5(1), 75–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kocher, T. & Wilson, A., 1991. Sequence evolution of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees: control region and a protein-coding region, in Evolution of Life: Fossils, Molecules, and Culture, eds. Osawa, S. & Honjo, T.. New York (NY): Springer-Verlag, 391–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kozlowski, J.K., 1990. Northern central Europe c. 18,000 BP, in Soffer & Gamble (eds.), 204–27.Google Scholar
Krzyzaniak, L., Kobusiewicz, M. & Alexander, J. (eds.), 1993. Environmental Change and Human Culture in the Nile Basin and Northern Africa until the Second Millennium BC. Poznan: Museum Archeologiczne W Poznaniu.Google Scholar
Kuhn, S., 1996. Mousterian Lithic Technology and Raw Material Economy. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lahr, M.M., 1994. The multiregional model of modern human origins: a reassessment of its morphological basis. Journal of Human Evolution 26, 23–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahr, M.M., 1996. The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lahr, M.M. & Foley, R.A., 1994. Multiple dispersals and modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthropology 3, 48–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahr, M.M. & Foley, R.A., in prep.. Concepts of Geography and Diversity in Modern Human Evolution. MS.Google Scholar
Larick, R. & Ciochon, R.L., 1996. The African emergence and early Asian dispersals of the genus Homo. American Scientist 84, 538–51.Google Scholar
Leakey, L.S.B., 1961. New finds at Olduvai. Nature 189, 649–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, M., Tobias, P.V., Martyn, J.E. & Leakey, R.E.F., 1969. An Acheulian industry with prepared core technique and the discovery of a contemporary hominid at Lake Baringo, Kenya. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 35, 48–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lévêque, F. & Vandermeersch, B., 1981. Le neandertalien de Saint-Cesaire. Recherche 12, 242–4.Google Scholar
Lévêque, F., Backer, A.M. & Guilbaud, M. (eds.), 1993. Context of a Late Neandertal: Implications of Multidisciplinary Research for the Transition to Upper Paleolithic Adaptations at Saint-Cesaire, Charente-Maritime, France. Madison (WI:)Prehistory Press.Google Scholar
Li, T. & Etler, D.A., 1992. New Middle Pleistocene hominid crania from Yunxian in China. Nature 357, 404–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Li, W.-H. & Sadler, L.A., 1991. Low nucleotide diversity in man. Genetics 129, 513–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, D.E. & Shea, J.J., 1994. Behavioral differences between archaic and modern humans in the Levantine Mousterian. American Anthropologist 96, 300–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, P., 1989. The origins of some aspects of humans language and cognition, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 391–14.Google Scholar
McBurney, C.B.M., 1960. The Stone Age of Northern Africa. London: William Clowes & Sons Ltd.Google Scholar
McBurney, C.B.M., 1967. Haua Fteah and the Stone Age of the Southeast Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McLarnon, A., 1993. The vertebral canal, in The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton, eds. Walker, A. & Leakey, R.. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 359–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddison, D.R., Ruvolo, M. & Swofford, D.L., 1992. Geographic origins of human mitochondrial DNA: phylogenetic evidence from control region sequences. Systematic Biology 41, 111–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maley, J.J., Roset, R. & Servant, M., 1971. Nouveaux gisements preéhistoriques au Niger oriental: localisation stratigraphique. Bulletin de Liaison ASEQUA 31, 9–18.Google Scholar
Manderscheid, E.J. & Rogers, A.R., 1996. Genetic admixture in the Late Pleistocene.American Journal of Physical Anthropology 100, 1–5.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, A.E., 1990. The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic of the Near East and the Nile Valley: the problem of cultural transformations, in The Emergence of Modern Humans, ed. P., Mellars. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press, 56–80.Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J., 1990. The Y of human relationships. Nature 344, 591–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellars, P., 1989. Technological changes at the Middle–Upper Palaeolithic transition: economic, social and cognitive perspectives, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 338–65.Google Scholar
Mellars, P., 1991. Cognitive changes and the emergence of modern humans in Europe. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1(1), 63–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellars, P., 1992. Outlining the problems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 337, 225–34.Google Scholar
Mellars, P., 1993. Archaeology and the population–dispersal hypothesis of modern human origins in Europe, in Aitken et al. (eds.), 196–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellars, P., 1996. The Neanderthal Legacy: an Archaeological Perspective from Western Europe. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellars, P. & Stringer, C.B. (eds.), 1989. The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Misra, V. & Rajaguru, S., 1987. Palaeoenvironment and prehistory of the Thar desert, in South Asian Archaeology, ed. K., Frifelt. Copenhagen: Scandinavian University Press.Google Scholar
Mithen, S., 1996. The Prehistory of the Mind: a Search for the Origins of Art, Religion and Science. London: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Morin, P.A., Wallis, J., Moore, J., Chakraborty, R. & Woodruff, D., 1993. Non–invasive sampling and DNA amplification for paternity exclusion, community structure, and phylogeography in wild chimpanzees. Primates 34, 347–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morlan, R.E., 1987. The Pleistocene archaeology of Beringia, in The Evolution of Human Hunting, eds. M.H., Nitecki & Nitecki, D.V.. New York (NY): Plenum, 267–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, A.G., 1992. Biological relationships between Upper Pleistocene and Holocene populations in southern Africa, in Brauer & Smith (eds.), 131–43.Google Scholar
Nei, M & Takezaki, N., 1996. The root of the phylogenetic tree of human populations. Molecular Biology and Evolution 13, 170–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, J.W., 1987. Recent developments in the Upper Pleistocene prehistory of China, in The Pleistocene Old World: Regional Perspectives, ed. Soffer, O.. New York (NY): Plenum Press, 135–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otte, M, 1990. The northwestern European plain around 18,000 BP, in Soffer & Gamble (eds.), 54–68.Google Scholar
Paabo, S, 1995. The Y chromosome and the origin of all of us (men). Science 268, 1141–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmqvist, P, Peérez–Claros, J.A., Gilbert, J. & Santamariaá, J.L., 1996. Comparative morphometric study of a human phalanx from the Lower Pleistocene site at Cueva Victoria (Murcia, Spain), by means of Fourier analysis, shape coordinates of landmarks, principal and relative warps. Journal of Archaeological Science 23(1), 95–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pares, J.M. & Perez–Gonzalez, A., 1995. Paleomagnetic age for hominid fossils at Atapuerca archaeological site, Spain. Science 269, 830–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pei, W.C., 1938–9. On the Upper Cave industry. Peking Natural History Bulletin 13, 175–9.Google Scholar
Penny, D, Steel, M., Waddell, P.J. & Hendy, M.D., 1995. Improved analyses of human mtDNA sequences support a recent African origin of Homo sapiens. Molecular Biology and Evolution 12, 863–82.Google Scholar
Phillipson, D.W., 1985. African Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pope, G.G., 1988. Recent advances in Far Eastern palaeoanthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 17, 43–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, G.G., 1992. Craniofacial evidence for the origin of modern humans in China. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 35, 243–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rak, Y, 1986. The Neanderthal: a new look at an old face. Journal of Human Evolution 15, 151–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Relethford, J.H., 1995. Genetics and modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthropology 4, 53–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renfrew, A.C., 1973. Before Civilization. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Renfrew, A.C., 1991. Before Babel: speculations on the origins of linguistic diversity. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1(1), 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, T.E.G. & Kaner, S.C., 1990. Japan and Korea at 18,000 BP, in Soffer & Gamble (eds.), 296–311.Google Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1981. More on the study of the Border Cave remains. Current Anthropology 20, 23–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1984.Homo sapiens in sub-Saharan Africa, in Smith & Spencer (eds.), 295–325.Google Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1988. Homo erectus and later Middle Pleistocene humans. Annual Review of Anthropology 17, 239–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1989. Middle Stone Age humans from eastern and southern Africa, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 109–22.Google Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1990. The Evolution of Homo erectus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1994. The relationship of Homo erectus to later Middle Pleistocene hominids. Courier Forshung Senckenbergensis 171, 319–25.Google Scholar
Rightmire, G.P., 1996. The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene. Journal of Human Evolution 31, 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, M.B., Stringer, C.B. & Parfitt, S.A., 1994. A hominid tibia from Middle Pleistocene sediments at Boxgrove, UK. Nature 369, 311–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, R.G., Jones, R., Spooner, N.A., Head, M.J., Murray, A.S. & Smith, M.A., 1994. The human colonisation of Australia: optical dates of 53,000 and 60,000 years bracket human arrival at Deaf Adder Gorge, Northern Territory. Quaternary Science Reviews 13, 575–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robson Brown, K., 1995. A Phylogenetic Systematic Analysis of Hominid Behaviour. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Roche, J, 1976. Chronostratigraphie des restes atriens de la grotte des Contrebandiers Temara (province de Rabat). Bulletin de Societe Anthropologie, Paris 3 (serie XIII), 165–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, A.R., 1995. How much can fossils tell us about regional continuity? Current Anthropology 36, 674–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, A.R. & Harpending, H.C., 1992. Population growth makes waves in the distribution of pairwise genetic differences. Molecular Biology and Evolution 9, 552–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Rogers, A.R. & Jorde, L.B., 1995. Genetic evidence on modern human origins. Human Biology 67, 1–36.Google ScholarPubMed
Ruff, C., 1991. Climate and body shape in hominid evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 21, 81–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruff, C., Walker, A. & Trinkaus, E., 1994. Postcranial robusticity in Homo 3: ontogeny. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 93, 35–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santa-Luca, A.P., 1980. The Ngandong Fossil Hominids. (Publications in Anthropology 78.) New Haven (CT): Yale University.Google Scholar
Santos, F.R., Gerelsaikhan, T., Munkhtuja, B., Oyunsurem, T., Epplen, J.T. & Pena, S.D., in press. Geographic differences in the allele frequencies of the human Y-linked tetranucleotide polymorphism DYS19. Human Genetics.Google Scholar
Schick, K.D. & Zhuan, Dong, 1993. Early Paleolithic of China and eastern Asia. Evolutionary Anthropology 2, 22–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schick, K.D. & Toth, N., 1993. Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. New York (NY): Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Schwarcz, H.P., 1992. Uranium–serires dating and the origins of modern man. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, Series B 337, 131–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Segre, A & Ascenzi, A., 1984. Fontana Ranuccio: Italy's earliest Middle Pleistocene hominid site. Current Anthropology 25, 230–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherry, S, Rogers, A.R., Harpending, H.C., Soodyall, H., Jenkins, T. & Stoneking, M., 1994. Mismatch distributions of mtDNA reveal recent human population expansions. Human Biology 66, 761–75.Google ScholarPubMed
Simanjuntak, T & Semah, F., 1996. A new insight into the Sangiran flake industry. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 14, 22–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, R & Wymer, J., 1982. The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Singer, R, Gladfelter, B. & Wymer, J.J., 1993. The Lower Paleolithic site at Hoxne, England. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smith, F.H., 1992. The role of continuity in modern human origins, in Brauer & Smith (eds.), 145–56.Google Scholar
Smith, F.H. & Spencer, F. (eds.), 1989. The Origins of Modern Humans: a World Survey of the Fossil Evidence. New York (NY): Alan Liss.Google Scholar
Smith, F.H., Simek, J.F. & Harrill, M.S., 1989. Geographic variation in supraorbital torus reduction during the Later Pleistocene (c. 80,000–15,000 BP), in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 172–93.Google Scholar
Smith, M.A. & Sharp, N.D., 1993. Pleistocene sites in Australia, New Guinea and Island Melanesia: geographic and temporal structure of the archaeological record, in Sahul in Review: Pleistocene Archaeology in Australia, New Guinea and Island Melanesia, eds. Smith, M.A., Spriggs, M. & Fankhauser, B.. (Occasional Papers in Prehistory 24.) Canberra: Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, ANU, 37–59.Google Scholar
Soffer, O & Gamble, C. (eds.), 1990. The World at 18,000 BP, vol. 1: High Latitudes. London: Unwin Hyman.Google Scholar
Stiner, M.C., 1994. Honor among Thieves: a Zoological Study of Neanderthal Ecology. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Stoneking, M, 1993. DNA and recent human evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology 2, 60–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strauss, L.G., 1993–4. Upper Paleolithic origins and radiocarbon calibration: more new evidence from Spain. Evolutionary Anthropology 2, 195–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stringer, C.B., 1988. The dates of Eden. Nature 331, 565–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stringer, C.B., 1989. The origin of modern humans: a comparison of the European and non–European evidence, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 232–44.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B., 1992. Replacement, continuity and the origin of Homo sapiens, in Bräuer & Smith (eds.), 9–24.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B., 1993. New views on modern human origins, in The Origin and Evolution of Humans and Hu–manness, ed. Rasmussen, D.T.. Boston (MA): Jones & Bartlett, 75–94.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B., 1995. The evolution and distribution of Later Pleistocene human populations, in Paleoclimates and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins, eds. Vrba, E.S. & Denton, G.H.. Yale (CT): Yale University Press, 524–31.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B., 1996. The Boxgrove tibia: Britain's oldest hominid and its place in the Middle Pleistocene record, in The English Palaeolithic Reviewed, eds. Gamble, C. & Lawson, A.J.. Wessex: Trust for Wessex Archaeology Ltd, 52–6.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B. & Andrews, P., 1988. Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans. Science 239, 1263–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stringer, C.B. & Gamble, C., 1993. In Search of the Neanderthals. London: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B. & McKie, R., 1996. African Exodus. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B.Hublin, J.J. & Vandermeersch, B., 1984. The origin of anatomically modem humans in western Europe, in Smith & Spencer (eds.), 51–135.Google Scholar
Stringer, C.B., Grün, R., Schwarcz, H.P. & Goldberg, P., 1989. ESR dates for the hominid burial site of Skhul in Israel. Nature 338, 756–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svoboda, J, 1990. Moravia during the Upper Pleniglacial, in Soffer & Gamble (eds.), 193–203.Google Scholar
IIISwisher, C.C., Curtis, G.H., Jacob, T., Getty, A.G., Suprijo, A. & Widiasmoro, , 1994. Age of the earliest known hominids in Java, Indonesia. Science 263, 1118–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IIISwisher, C.C., Rink, W.J., Anton, S.C., Schwarcz, H.P., Curtis, G.H., Suprijo, A. & Widiasmoro, , 1996. Latest Homo erectus of Java: potential contemporaneity with Homo sapiens in Southeast Asia. Science 274, 1870–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takahata, N, 1993. Allelic genealogy and human evolution. Molecular Biology and Evolution 10, 2–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Takahata, N, Satta, Y. & Klein, J., 1995. Divergence time and populaton size in the lineage leading to modern humans. Theoretical Population Biology 48, 198–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamura, K & Nei, M., 1993. Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 10, 512–26.Google ScholarPubMed
Tattersall, I, 1986. Species recognition in human palaeontology. Journal of Human Evolution 15, 165–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tchernov, E, 1992. Eurasian–African biotic exchanges through the Levantine corridor during the Neogene and Quaternary. Courier Forshung Senckenbergensis 153, 103–23.Google Scholar
Tchernov, E, 1994. New comments on the biostratigraphy of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene of the Levant, in Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean, eds. O., Bar–Yosef & Kra, R.S.. Tucson (AZ): Radiocarbon, 333–50.Google Scholar
Templeton, A.R., 1993. The ‘Eve Hypothesis’: a genetic critique and reanalysis. American Anthropologist 95, 51–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tillet, T, 1983. La Palaeolithique du Bassin Tchadien septentrional (Nige–Tchad). Paris: CNRS.Google Scholar
Tishkoff, S.A., Dietzsch, E., Speed, W., Pakstis, A.J., Kidd, J.R., Cheung, K., Bonne–Tamir, B., Santachiara–Benerecetti, A.S., Moral, P., Krings, M., Paabo, S., Watson, E., Risch, N., Jenkins, T. & Kidd, K.K., 1996. Global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the CD4 locus and modern human origins. Science 271, 1380–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trinkaus, E, 1992. Morphological contrasts between the Near Eastern Qafzeh–Skhul and late archaic human samples: grounds for a behavioural difference, in The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia, eds. Akazawa, T., Aoki, K. & Kimura, T.. Tokyo: Hokusen–sha, 278–94.Google Scholar
Trinkaus, E, 1993. Femoral neck-shaft angles of the QafzehSkhul early modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution 25, 393–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trinkaus, E, 1995. Neandertal mortality patterns. Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 121–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trinkaus, E & Shipman, P., 1993. Neanderthals: Images of ourselves. Evolutionary Anthropology 1, 194–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IITurner, C.G., 1985. The dental search for Native American origins, in Out of Asia: Peopling of the Americas and the Pacific, eds. Kirk, R. & Szathmary, E.. Canberra: Journal of Pacific History, 31–78.Google Scholar
Valladas, H, Joron, J.L., Valladas, G., Arensburg, B., Bar–Yosef, O., Belfer–Cohen, A., Goldberg, P., Laville, H., Meignen, L., Rak, Y., Tchernov, E., Tillier, A.-M. & Vandermeersch, B., 1987. Thermoluminescence dates for the Neanderthal burial site at Kebara in Israel. Nature 330, 159–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valladas, H, Reyss, J.L., Joron, J.L., Valladas, G., Bar–Yosef, O. & Vandermeersch, B., 1988. Thermoluminescence dating of Mousterian ‘proto Cro–Magnon’ remains from Israel and the origin of modern man. Nature 331, 614–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vallois, H.V., 1954. Neanderthals and praesapiens. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 84, 111–30.Google Scholar
van Noten, F., 1982 Excavations in the Kapthurin Formation. Nyame Akuma 20, 17–19.Google Scholar
van Riet Lowe, C., 1945. The evolution of the Levallois technique in South Africa. Man 45, 37–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Vark, G.N., 1986. More on the Classification of the Border Cave I Skull. Lisboa: 5th Congress of the European Anthropological Association.Google Scholar
van Vark, G.N. & Howells, W.W. (eds.), 1984. Multivariate Statistical Methods in Physical Anthropology. Dordrecht: Reidel.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vermeersch, P.M., Gijselings, G. & Paulissen, E., 1984. Discovery of the Nazlet-Khater man, Upper Egypt. Journal of Human Evolution 13, 281–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vigilant, L, Pennington, R., Harpending, H.C., Kocher, T.D. & Wilson, A.C., 1989. Mitochondrial DNA sequences in single hairs from a southern African population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 86, 9350–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vigilant, L, Stoneking, M., Harpending, H.C., Hawkes, K. & Wilson, A.C., 1991. African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA. Science 253, 1503–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vignard, A.E., 1923. une nouvelle Industrie lithique, le Sebilian. (Bui. Inst. Fr. Arch. Orient. 22.) Paris: Institut Francaise ďArchaeologie Orientale.Google Scholar
Villa, P, 1991. Middle Pleistocene prehistory in southwestern Europe: the state of our knowledge and ignorance. Journal of Anthropological Research 47, 193–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, J & Waterbolk, H., 1972. Groningen radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 14, 6–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waddle, D.M., 1994. Matrix correlation tests support a single origin for modern humans. Nature 368, 542–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, A, 1875. On Natural Selection. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Weidenreich, F, 1938–9. On the earliest representatives of modern mankind on the soil of East Asia. Peking Natural History Bulletin 13, 161–79.Google Scholar
Weidenreich, F, 1943. The Skull of Sinanthropus Pekinensis: a Comparative Study of a Primitive Hominid Skull. (Palaeontologia Sinica 10.) Beijing: Geological Survey of China.Google Scholar
Wendorf, F & Schild, R., 1974. A Middle Stone Age Sequence from the Central Rift Valley, Ethiopia. Warsaw: Polska Akademia Nauk Instytut Historii Kultury Materialnej.Google Scholar
Wendorf, F, Laury, R.L., Albritton, C.C., Schild, R., Haynes, C.V., Damon, P.E., Schaffiqullah, M., & Scarborough, R., 1975. Dates for the Middle Palaeolithic of Africa. Science 187, 740–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wendorf, F, Schild, R., Siad, R., Haynes, C.V., Gautier, A. & Kobusiewicz, M., 1976. The prehistory of the Egyptian Sahara. Science 193, 103–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wendorf, F, Close, A.E., Schild, R., Gautier, A., Schwarcz, H.P., Miller, G.H., Kowalski, K., Krolik, H., Bluszcz, A., Robins, D. & Grün, R., 1990. Le dernier interglaciaire dans le Sahara oriental. L'Anthropologie 94, 361–91.Google Scholar
Wendorf, F, Close, A., Schild, R., Gautier, A., Schwarcz, H.P., Miller, G.H., Kowalski, K., Krolik, H., Bluszcz, A., Robinson, D., Grun, R. & McKinney, C., 1991. Chronology and stratigraphy of the Middle Palaeolithic at Bir Tarfawi, Egypt, in Cultural Beginnings: Approaches at Understanding Early Hominid Life-ways in the East African Savanna Mosaic, ed. Clark, J.D.. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt, 197–208.Google Scholar
Wendorf, F, Schild, R. & Close, A.E., 1993. Middle Palaeolithic occupations at Bir Tarfawi and Bir Sahara East, Western Desert of Egypt, in Krzyzaniak et al. (eds.), 103–12.Google Scholar
White, R, 1989. Production complexity and standardization in early Aurignacian bead an pendant manufacture: evolutionary implications, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 366–90.Google Scholar
Whitfield, L.S., Sulston, J.E. & Goodfellow, P.N., 1995. Sequence variation of the human Y-chromosome. Nature 378, 379–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wills, C, 1990. Population size bottleneck. Nature 348, 398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, A.C., Cann, R.L., Carr, S.M., et al, 1985. Mitochondrial DNA and two perspectives on evolutionary genetics. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 26, 375–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolpoff, M.H., 1989. Multiregional evolution: the fossil alternative to Eden, in Mellars & Stringer (eds.), 62–108.Google Scholar
Wolpoff, M.H., 1996. Interpretations of multiregional evolution. Science 274, 704–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolpoff, M.H., Wu, X.Z. & Thorne, A.G., 1984. Modern Homo sapiens origins: a general theory of hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from East Asia, in Smith & Spencer (eds.), 411–83.Google Scholar
Yellen, J.E., Brooks, A.S., Cornelissen, E., Mehlman, M.J. & Stewart, K., 1995. A Middle Stone Age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268, 553–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, M. & Ho, C.K., 1990. History of the dating of Homo erectus at Zhoukoudian. Geological Society of America Special Papers 242, 69–74.Google Scholar
Zuraina, M., 1982. The West Mouth, Niah, in the Prehistory of Southeast Asia. (Sarawak Museum Journal 31; Special Monograph 3.) Kuching (Sarawak): The Museum.Google Scholar