Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-5ngxj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-14T00:50:11.044Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

‘All eyes are on you’: Gender, race, and opinion writing on the US Courts of Appeals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Laura P. Moyer ,
John Szmer ,
Susan Haire  and
Robert K. Christensen
Laura P. Moyer*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
John Szmer
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
Susan Haire
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
Robert K. Christensen
Affiliation:
Romney Institute of Public Service and Ethics, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
*
Laura P. Moyer, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA., Email: laura.moyer@louisville.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Because stereotyping affects individual assessments of ability and because of socializing experiences in the law, we argue that women and judges of color, while well-credentialed, feel pressure to work harder than their white male peers to demonstrate their competence. Using an original dataset of published appellate court opinions from 2008–2016, we find that majority opinions authored by female and non-white judges go farther to explain and justify their rulings, when compared to opinions written by white male peers. In comparison to other judges, opinions by white men are about 6% shorter, with 11% fewer citations, and 17% fewer extensively discussed citations. Our findings suggest that norms about crafting judicial opinions are gendered and racialized in ways that create higher workloads for women and judges of color.

Information

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 55 , Issue 3 , September 2021 , pp. 452 - 472
Copyright
© 2021 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

How to cite this article: Moyer, Laura P., John Szmer, Susan Haire, Robert K. Christensen. 2021. “All eyes are on you”: Gender, race, and opinion writing on the US Courts of Appeals. Law & Society Review 55(3): 452-472. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12559

Funding information National Science Foundation, Grant/Award Numbers: 1654614, 1654559, 1654697, 1655159

References

REFERENCES

Allison, Paul D. 2009. Fixed Effects Regression Models. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allison, Paul D., and Waterman, Richard P. 2002. “Fixed-Effects Negative Binomial Regression Models.” Sociological Methodology 32(1): 247-65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Associated Press. 1993. “Science Will Minimize Dispute over Abortion, Ginsburg Says.” Deseret News, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.deseret.com/1993/8/9/19060163/science-will-minimize-dispute-over-abortion-ginsburg-says.Google Scholar
Atkinson, Mary Layton, and Windett, Jason Harold. 2019. “Gender Stereotypes and the Policy Priorities of Women in Congress.” Political Behavior 41: 769-89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bannai, Lorraine K. 2014. “Challenged x 3: The Stories of Women of Color Who Teach Legal Writing.” Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law, and Justice 29: 275-94.Google Scholar
Baum, Lawrence. 2006. Judges and their Audiences. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beim, Deborah, Hirsch, Alexander V., and Kastellec, Jonathan P. 2016. “Signaling and Counter-Signaling in the Judicial Hierarchy: An Empirical Analysis of En Banc Review.” American Journal of Political Science 60(2): 490–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beyer, Sylvia, and Bowden, Edward M. 1997. “Gender Differences in Self-Perceptions: Convergent Evidence from Three Measures of Accuracy and Bias.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23(2): 157-72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bian, Lin, Leslie, Sarah-Jane, and Cimpian, Andrei. 2017. “Gender Stereotypes about Intellectual Ability Emerge Early and Influence Children's Interests.” Science 355(6323): 389-91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, Ryan C., Owens, Ryan J., Wedeking, Justin, and Wohlfarth, Patrick C. 2016. US Supreme Court Opinions and their Audiences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanch, Danielle C., Hall, Judith A., Roter, Debra L., and Frankel, Richard M. 2008. “Medical Student Gender and Issues of Confidence.” Patient Education and Counseling 72(3): 374-81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowie, Jennifer B., Songer, Donald R., and Szmer, John. 2014. The View from the Bench and Chambers: Examining Judicial Process and Decision Making on the U.S. Courts of Appeals. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Boyd, Christina L. 2015. “Opinion Writing in the Federal District Courts.” Justice System Journal 36(3): 254-73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brehm, Jack W. 1966. A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Budziak, Jeffrey, Hitt, Matthew P., and Lempert, Daniel. 2019. “Determinants of Writing Style on the United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.” Journal of Law and Courts 7(1): 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Lief. 1979. Reason in Law. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Chaiken, Shelly. 1980. “Heuristic Versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source Versus Message Cues in Persuasion.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39(5): 752-66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, Stephen J., and Gulati, Mitu. 2007. “Trading Votes for Reasoning: Covering in Judicial Opinions.” Southern California Law Review 81: 735-79.Google Scholar
Christensen, Robert K., Szmer, John, and Stritch, Justin M. 2012. “Race and Gender Bias in Three Administrative Contexts: Impact on Work Assignments in State Supreme Courts.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 22(4): 625-48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clance, Pauline R., and Imes, Suzanne A. 1978. “The Imposter Phenomenon in High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention.” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 15(3): 241-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cokley, Kevin, McClain, Shannon, Enciso, Alicia, and Martinez, Mercedes. 2013. “An Examination of the Impact of Minority Status Stress and Impostor Feelings on the Mental Health of Diverse Ethnic Minority College Students.” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 41(2): 82–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Todd A., Dumas, Tao L., and Moyer, Laura P. 2017. “Intersecting Disadvantages: Race, Gender, and Age Discrimination among Attorneys.” Social Science Quarterly 98(5): 1642-58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Todd A., Dumas, Tao L., and Moyer, Laura P. 2018. “Tipping the Scales of Justice: Perceptions of Unfair Treatment in the Courtroom.” Justice System Journal 39(4): 303-21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Todd A., and Moyer, Laura P. 2008. “Gender, Race, and Intersectionality on the Federal Appellate Bench.” Political Research Quarterly 61(2): 219-27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corley, Pamela, Collins, Paul M. Jr., and Calvin, Bryan. 2011. “Lower Court Influence on U.S. Supreme Court Opinion Content.” Journal of Politics 73(1): 31–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Darren W., and Silver, Brian D. 2003. “Stereotype Threat and Race of Interviewer Effects in a Survey on Political Knowledge.” American Journal of Political Science 47(1): 33–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deo, Meera E. 2019. Unequal Profession: Race and Gender in Legal Academia. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen, and Ford, Lynne E. 1995. “Women in the State Legislatures: Feminist Identity and Legislative Behaviors.” American Politics Quarterly 23(1): 96–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epner, Janet E. 2006. Visible Invisibility: Women of Color in Law Firms. Chicago: ABA Commission on Women in the Profession.Google Scholar
Epstein, Lee, Landes, William M., and Posner, Richard A. 2011. “Why (and When) Judges Dissent: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis.” Journal of Legal Analysis 3(1): 101-37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, Lee, Landes, William M., and Posner, Richard A. 2013. The Behavior of Federal Judges: A Theoretical and Empirical Study of Rational Choice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ewing, Kimberly M., Richardson, Tina Q., James-Myers, Linda, and Russell, Richard K. 1996. “The Relationship between Racial Identity Attitudes, Worldview, and African American Graduate Students' Experience of the Imposter Phenomenon.” Journal of Black Psychology 22(1): 53–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federal Judicial Center. 2020 “Biographical Directory of Article III Federal Judges, 1789-present.” Accessed November 16, 2020. https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges.Google Scholar
Fisch, Louise. 1996. All Rise: Reynaldo G. Garza, the First Mexican American Federal Judge. College Station: University Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, Judith D. 1996. “Portia Unbound: The Effects of a Supportive Law School Environment on Women and Minority Students.” UCLA Women's Law Journal 7(1): 81–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores, David M., Miller, Monica K., Chamberlain, Jared, Richardson, James T., and Bornstein, Brian H. 2009. “Judges' Perspectives on Stress and Safety in the Courtroom: An Exploratory Study.” Court Review 45(3): 76–89.Google Scholar
Fossum, Donna. 1983. “Law and the Sexual Integration of Institutions: The Case of American Law Schools.” ALSA Forum 7(2–3): 222-50.Google Scholar
Furnham, Adrian, and Rawles, Richard. 1995. “Sex Differences in the Estimation of Intelligence.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 10(3): 741-5.Google Scholar
Garcia-Lopez, Gladys. 2008. “Nunca Te Toman En Cuenta (They Never Take You Into Account).” Gender and Society 22: 590–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, R.D., Lazos, S.R., and Waters, M.M. 2011. “Are Judicial Performance Evaluations Fair to Women and Minorities? A Cautionary Tale from Clark County, Nevada.” Law and Society Rev. 45(3): 731-59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gramlich, John. 2021. How Trump Compares with Other Recent Presidents in Appointing Federal Judges. Pew Research Center. Accessed January 13, 2021. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/01/13/how-trump-compares-with-other-recent-presidents-in-appointing-federal-judges/Google Scholar
Guinier, Lani, Fine, Michelle, and Balin, Jane. 1994. “Becoming Gentlemen: Women's Experiences at One Ivy League Law School.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 143(1): 1–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haire, Susan B., and Moyer, Laura P. 2008. “Advocacy Through Briefs in the US Courts of Appeals.” Southern Illinois Law Journal 32: 593–609.Google Scholar
Haire, Susan B., and Moyer, Laura P. 2015. Diversity Matters: Judicial Policy Making in the U.S. Courts of Appeals. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Hengel, Erin. 2017. “Publishing While Female: Are Women Held to Higher Standards? Evidence from Peer Review.” Cambridge Working Paper Economics: 1753.Google Scholar
Henning, Kris, Ey, Sydney, and Shaw, Darlene. 1998. “Perfectionism, the Impostor Phenomenon and Psychological Adjustment in Medical, Dental, Nursing and Pharmacy Students.” Medical Education 32(5): 456-64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hettinger, Virginia A., Lindquist, Stefanie A., and Martinek, Wendy L. 2006. Judging on a Collegial Court: Influences on Federal Appellate Decision Making. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Hinkle, Rachael K. 2015. “Legal Constraint in the US Courts of Appeals.” Journal of Politics 77(3): 721-35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinkle, Rachael K. 2017. “Panel Effects and Opinion Crafting in the US Courts of Appeals.” Journal of Law and Courts 5(2): 313-36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Homer, Suzanne, and Schwartz, Lois. 1989. “Admitted but Not Accepted: Outsiders Take an inside Look at Law School.” Berkeley Women's Law Journal 5(1): 1–74.Google Scholar
Hoyt, Crystal L., and Blascovich, Jim. 2007. “Leadership Efficacy and Women Leaders’ Responses to Stereotype Activation.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 10(4): 595–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyt, Crystal L., Johnson, Stefanie K., Murphy, Susan Elaine, and Skinnell, Kerri Hogue. 2010. “The Impact of Blatant Stereotype Activation and Group Sex-composition on Female Leaders.” The Leadership Quarterly 21(5): 716-32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hume, Robert J. 2009. “The Impact of Judicial Opinion Language on the Transmission of Federal Circuit Court Precedents.” Law and Society Review 43(1): 127-50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ifill, Sherrilyn A. 2011. “Racial Diversity on the Bench: Beyond Role Models and Public Confidence.” Washington and Lee Law Review 57: 405–496.Google Scholar
Kanter, Rosabeth Moss. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kellerman, Barbara, and Rhode, Deborah. 2017. “Women at the Top: The Pipeline as Pipe Dream.” About Campus 21(6): 11-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Pauline. 2009. “Deliberation and Strategy on the United States Courts of Appeals: An Empirical Exploration of Panel Effects.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 157(5): 1319-81.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, Jennet. 2020. “Fairness has a Face: Neutrality and Descriptive Representation on Courts.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 8(4): 803-11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, David E. 2002. Making Law in the United States Courts of Appeals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kling, Kristen C., Hyde, Janet Shibley, Showers, Carolin J., and Buswell, Brenda N. 1999. “Gender Differences in Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 125(4): 470–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krauskopf, Joan M. 1994. “Touching the Elephant: Perceptions of Gender Issues in Nine Law Schools.” Journal of Legal Education 44(3): 311-40.Google Scholar
Kray, Laura J., Thompson, Leigh, and Galinsky, Adam. 2001. “Battle of the Sexes: Gender Stereotype Confirmation and Reactance in Negotiations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80(6): 942-58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarus, Jeffrey, and Steigerwalt, Amy. 2018. Gendered Vulnerability: How Women Work Harder to Stay in Office. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonard, Meghan E., and Ross, Joseph V. 2016. “Understanding the Length of State Supreme Court Opinions.” American Politics Research 44(4): 710-33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lige, Quiera M., Peteet, Bridgette J., and Brown, Carrie M. 2017. “Racial Identity, Self-Esteem, and the Impostor Phenomenon Among African American College Students.” Journal of Black Psychology 43(4): 345-57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, J. Scott, and Freese, Jeremy. 2014. Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables Using Stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press.Google Scholar
Lowndes, Vivien. 2020. “How Are Political Institutions Gendered?” Political Studies 68(3): 543-64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lustig, Stuart L., Delucchi, Kevin, Tennakoon, Lakshika, Kaul, Brent, Marks, Dana Leigh, and Slavin, Denise. 2008. “Burnout and Stress among United States Immigration Judges.” Bender's Immigration Bulletin: 22–30.Google Scholar
Manning, P.J. 2018. “Word to the Wise: Feedback Intervention to Moderate the Effects of Stereotype Threat and Attributional Ambiguity on Law Students.” University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender and Class 18: 99–138.Google Scholar
Matthews, Susan. 2020. “When a ‘Liberal Lion’ Is Also Your Harasser.” Slate, accessed November 16, 2020, https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/02/sexual-harassment-stephen-reinhardt-clerkships-judiciary-congress.html.Google Scholar
Mauro, Tony. 2019. “Law Clerk Diversity: ‘It's Complicated.’” Law.com, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.law.com/nationallawjournal/2019/09/26/law-clerk-diversity-its-complicated/.Google Scholar
McClain, Russell A. 2016. “Helping our Students Reach their Full Potential: The Insidious Consequences of Ignoring Stereotype Threat.” Rutgers Race and Law Review 17: 1–56.Google Scholar
Means, Taneisha and Unah, Isaac. 2020. “Judging Black Judges in Racialized Conflicts.” Presented at the Moore Undergraduate Research Apprentice Program (MURAP) Faculty Research Presentation Session, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, May.Google Scholar
Mertz, E., Frances, T., Katherine, B., Wamucii, N., Molly, H., and Joanne, M. 2012. “After Tenure: Post-Tenure Law Professors in the United States.” American Bar Foundation, accessed November 16, 2020, http://www.americanbarfoundation.org/uploads/cms/documents/after_tenure-_addendum_to_lsac_report_-_july_30.pdfGoogle Scholar
Miller, Monica K., Reichert, Jenny, Bornstein, Brian H., and Shulman, Grant. 2018. “Judicial Stress: The Roles of Gender and Social Support.” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 25(4): 602-18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millhiser, Ian. 2019. “The Absurd Whiteness of America's Court System, in 2 Charts.” Vox, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/10/3/20893643/whiteness-federal-judiciary-diversity-obama-trump.Google Scholar
Moyer, Laura P. 2008. “Organizations, Complexity, and Decision Making in the U.S. Courts of Appeals.” Ph.D. diss., Department of Political Science, University of Georgia.Google Scholar
Moyer, Laura P., and Haire, Susan B. 2015. “Trailblazers and those that Followed: Personal Experiences, Gender, and Judicial Empathy.” Law and Society Review 49(3): 665-89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NALP. 2014. “Increasing Diversity of Law School Graduates Not Reflected Among Judicial Clerks.” NALP Bulletin, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.nalp.org/0914research.Google Scholar
NALP. 2017. “A Demographic Profile of Judicial Clerks—2006 to 2016.” NALP Bulletin, Accessed November 16, 2020. https://www.nalp.org/1017research.Google Scholar
Nelson, Michael J., and Hinkle, Rachael K. 2018. “Crafting the Law: How Opinion Content Influences Legal Development.” Justice System Journal 39(2): 97–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, Robert L., Sendroiu, Ioana, Dinovitzer, Ronit, and Dawe, Meghan. 2019. “Perceiving Discrimination: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation in the Legal Workplace.” Law and Social Inquiry 44(4): 1051-82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumann, Richard K. 2000. “Women in Legal Education: What the Statistics Show.” Journal of Legal Education 50: 313-57.Google Scholar
Nguyen, Tony. 2019. “Why Women Win: Gender and Success in State Supreme Court Elections.” American Politics Research 47(3): 582–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nixon, David C., and Goss, David L. 2001. “Confirmation Delay for Vacancies on the Circuit Courts of Appeals.” American Politics Research 29(3): 246-74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Keefe, Daniel J. 1998. “Justification Explicitness and Persuasive Effect: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effects of Varying Support Articulation in Persuasive Messages.” Argumentation and Advocacy 35(2): 61–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Onwuachi-Willig, Angela. 2004. “Just another Brother on the SCT: What Justice Clarence Thomas Teaches us about the Influence of Racial Identity.” Iowa Law Review 90: 931–1009.Google Scholar
Pajares, Frank. 2002. “Gender and Perceived Self-Efficacy in Self-Regulated Learning.” Theory Into Practice 41(2): 116-25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peppers, Todd C., Giles, Micheal W., and Tainer-Parkins, Bridget. 2014. “Surgeons or Scribes? The Role of United States Court of Appeals Law Clerks in ‘Appellate Triage’.” Marquette Law Review 98: 313-32.Google Scholar
Peteet, Bridgette J., Montgomery, LaTrice, and Weekes, Jerren C. 2015. “Predictors of Imposter Phenomenon Among Talented Ethnic Minority Undergraduate Students.” Journal of Negro Education 84(2): 175-86.Google Scholar
Pomerantz, Eva M., Altermatt, Ellen R., and Saxon, Jill L. 2002. “Making the Grade but Feeling Distressed: Gender Differences in Academic Performance and Internal Distress.” Journal of Educational Psychology 94(2): 396–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purvis, Dara. 2017. “When Judges Prey on Clerks.” New York Times, Accessed November 16, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/12/opinion/law-schools-alex-kozinski.html.Google Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L. 1994. Professional Responsibility: Ethics by the Pervasive Method. Boston: Little and Brown.Google Scholar
Robbins, Laila and Bannon, Alice. 2019. “State Supreme Court Diversity.” Brennan Center for Justice, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/state-supreme-court-diversity.Google Scholar
Roberson, Loriann, Deitch, Elizabeth A., Brief, Arthur P., and Block, Caryn J. 2003. “Stereotype Threat and Feedback Seeking in the Workplace.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 62(1): 176-88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakulku, Jaruwan, and Alexander, James. 2011. “The Impostor Phenomenon.” Journal of Behavioral Science 6(1): 75–97.Google Scholar
Sen, Maya. 2014. “How Judicial Qualification Ratings May Disadvantage Minority and Female Candidates.” Journal of Law and Courts 22(1): 33–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, Martin. 1968. The Supreme Court and Administrative Agencies. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Silverman, Wendy K., La Greca, Annette M., and Wasserstein, Shari. 1995. “What Do Children Worry about? Worries and Their Relation to Anxiety.” Child Development 66(3): 671-86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sisk, Gregory C., Heise, Michael, and Morriss, Andrew P. 1998. “Charting the Influences on the Judicial Mind: An Empirical Study of Judicial Reasoning.” NYU Law Review 73: 1377–500.Google Scholar
Slotnick, Elliot E. 1983. “Federal Trial and Appellate Judges: How Do They Differ?” Western Political Quarterly 36(4): 570-78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Songer, Donald A. 1997. “Multi-User Database on the U.S. Courts of Appeals, 1925–1996.” Accessed May 1, 2020. http://artsandsciences.sc.edu/poli/juri/KH_update_codebook.pdfGoogle Scholar
Stanchi, Kathryn M., and Levine, Jan M. 2001. “Gender and Legal Writing: Law School's Dirty Little Secrets.” Berkeley Women's Law Journal 16(3): 3–27.Google Scholar
Steele, C.M., Aronson, J., and Spencer, S.J. 2007. “Stereotype Threat.” In Encyclopedia Social Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Steele, Claude M. 1997. “A Threat in the Air. How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance.” American Psychologist 52(6): 613-29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steigerwalt, Amy. 2010. Battle Over the Bench: Senators, Interest Groups, and Lower Court Confirmations. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
Swanson, Rick A., and Wasby, Stephen L. 2008. “Good Stewards: Law Clerk Influence in State High Courts.” Justice System Journal 29(1): 24–46.Google Scholar
Szmer, John, and Ginn, Martha H. 2014. “Examining the Effects of Information, Attorney Capability, and Amicus Participation on U.S. Supreme Court Decision Making.” American Politics Research 42(3): 441-71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szmer, John J., Kaheny, Erin B., and Christensen, Robert K. 2014. “Taking a Dip in the Supreme Court Clerk Pool: Gender-Based Discrepancies in Clerk Selection.” Marquette Law Review 98: 261-88.Google Scholar
Taylor, Shelley E., Fiske, Susan T., Etcoff, Nancy L., and Ruderman, Audrey J. 1978. “Categorical and Contextual Bases of Person Memory and Stereotyping.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36(7): 778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teles, Steven M. 2012. The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Thomsen, Danielle M., and Sanders, Bailey K. 2020. “Gender Differences in Legislator Responsiveness.” Perspectives on Politics 18(4): 1017-30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaughn, Ashley R., Taasoobshirazi, Gita, and Johnson, Marcus L. 2020. “Impostor Phenomenon and Motivation: Women in Higher Education.” Studies in Higher Education 45(4): 780-95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vecci, Joseph, and Zelinsky, Tomas. 2019. “Behavioural Challenges of Minorities: Social Identity and Role Models.” PLoS One 14(7): e0220010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wald, Patricia M. 1995. “The Rhetoric of Results and the Results of Rhetoric: Judicial Writings.” University of Chicago Law Review 62: 1371–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ware, Gilbert. 1984. William Hastie: grace under pressure. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wasserberg, M.J. 2014. “Stereotype Threat Effects on African American Children in an Urban Elementary School.” Journal of Experimental Education 82(4): 502-17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Catherine, and Melling, Louise. 1988. “The Legal Education of Twenty Women.” Stanford Law Review: 40(5): 1299–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Debra C. 2018. “Showing Anger Can Backfire for Female Lawyers, Studies Say; Law Prof Suggests ‘Gender Judo’ Response.” ABA, accessed November 16, 2020, https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/showing_anger_in_the_courtroom_can_backfire_for_women_lawyers_study_suggest.Google Scholar
Whaley, A.L. 2018. “Advances in Stereotype Threat Research on African Americans: Continuing Challenges to the Validity of its Role in the Achievement Gap.” Social Psychology of Education 21: 111-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-017-9415-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, David B. 1994. “Race, Ethics, and the First Amendment: Should a Black Lawyer Represent the Ku Klux Klan.” George Washington Law Review 63(6): 1030-70.Google Scholar
Williams, Margaret S. 2008. “Ambition, Gender, and the Judiciary.” Political Research Quarterly 61(1): 68–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Moyer et al. supplementary material
Download undefined(File)
File 145 KB