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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 October 2025

Edited by
David Tan ,
Jeanne Fromer  and
Dev Gangjee
David Tan
Affiliation:
National University of Singapore
Jeanne Fromer
Affiliation:
New York University
Dev Gangjee
Affiliation:
University of Oxford

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
Fashion and Intellectual Property , pp. 342 - 350
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Abloh, Virgil, 8, 45
Adam Opel AG v Autec AG, 229
Adams, Mitchell, 124
Adidas, 102, 134–135, 169
EU trademark challenges, 149–151
litigiousness of, 175–177
Adidas AG and Adidas Benelux BV v Marca Mode CV and Others, 229
Adler, Amy, 61
Adorno, Theodor, 234–236
Allwood, Emma Hope, 11
alpha brands, 33
altermodernism, 27, 46
Andrew, Trevor (GucciGhost), 12
Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts Inc v Goldsmith, 40
anti-fashion, 9
Anti-Unfair Competition Law (AUCL), 270–273, 278–279
Audemars Piguet, 25
Australia
culture of ‘casual piracy’ in, 106–108
design laws in, 114–117
increased demand for shoe trademarks in, 129–132
IP legal options for fashion designers in, 108–123
overlap of copyright and design laws in, 110–113
shape mark applications in, 124, 126–129
shoe shape litigation in, 120–123
trademark law in, 117–123
Australian Council for Intellectual Property (ACIP), 116
Australian Designs Register, 123
Australian Trade Marks Office (ATMO), 119–120
Australian Trade Marks Register, 123
authentic labelling, 313
automodernity, 28–29
Bagru hand block printing, 312–313
Bain, Andie, 232
Balenciaga, 134
and The Hacker Project, 14–15, 31, 34
and hacking, 11–12
and the metaverse, 20–21, 30
patents of, 170
and performatism, 28
and post-postmodernism, 47
and self-disruption, 5, 8
and shanzhai, 45
sneakers, 102
Banaras silk, 283
Barthes, Roland, 36–37
Baudrillard, Jean, 32, 61
Bayerische Motorenwerke AG (BMW) and BMW Nederland BV v Ronald Karel Deenik, 221
Beckham, Victoria, 102
Beebe, Barton, 32
Benelux Convention on Intellectual Property, 42
Berne Convention, 200
Birkinstocks, 23, 25–26
Bookchin, Murray, 52–53
Bottega Veneta, 7
Bourriaud, Nicolas, 27
Brandalism, 14
Brexit, 188, 190, 193, 198, 209, 214
Brompton Bicycle v Chedech/Get2Get, 207, 210–211
Brooks Brothers, 7
Brundtland Report, 297
Bulgari, 19
Burberry
and knockoffs, 253
and the metaverse, 18
phygital collection, 17
Burberry Blankos Block Party, 30
Burberry Limited v Baneberry Trading Co. Ltd. et al, 257–260
Bürger, Peter, 236–239
Burk, Dan, 61
The Business of Fashion, 5
Campbell v Acuff-Rose Music, 39
caricature, 37–39
casualisation, 7, 101
Céline SARL v Céline SA, 222
Chanel, 193
and logomania, 10
and parody, 43
and shape trademark, 278
and upcycling, 24–25, 46, 230
Chanel, Coco, 98
Chanel, Inc. v Shiver and Duke LLC, Edith Anne Hunt and John Does, 250–251
China
colour trademark protection in, 276–278
copyright of design elements in, 263–265
design elements as non-traditional trademarks in, 273–278
design patent protection of design elements in, 269–270
legal protections of design elements in, 263–273
shanzhai in, 252–255
3D trademark protection in, 273–276
trademark protection of design elements in, 265–269
unfair competition protection of design elements in, 273
China National Intellectual Property Administration (CNIPA), 269–271, 273
Chiuri, Maria Grazia, 319–321, 335–337
Christian Dior v China National Intellectual Property Administration, 274–276, 278
Christian Louboutin
and colour trademark, 278
and EU trademark challenges, 147
and secondary meaning protection, 139–141
Christian Louboutin and Christian Louboutin Sas v van Haren Schoenen BV, 147
Christian Louboutin SA v Yves Saint Laurent America Holding, Inc, 139–141, 155
Circular Economy Action Plan, 227
City Chain Stores (S) Pte Ltd v Louis Vuitton Malletier, 64
climate change, 4, 298, 306
Cofemel v G-Star Raw, 203–207, 209–210
colour trademark, 254, 273
protection of in Chinese law, 276–278
Comme des Garçons, 12
community rights, 331–332. See also unregistered community design right (UCD)
Coogi Australia Pty Ltd v Hysport International Pty Ltd, 113
Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC), 163–165
copying, 47, 103, 107, 134, 186, 242. See also shanzhai
and supplementary unregistered design right (SUD), 193–195
and unregistered community design right (UCD), 188
and design protection in the UK, 196–198, 200
and IP legal options, 108
reasonable necessity of, 40
and rights-based protection, 11
and sui generis design right, 132
copyright
attractiveness of such protection to designers, 201
of design elements in China, 263–265
and expressive features of design, 80–83
and fair use, 24, 34, 37–41, 44, 229
and fashion functionality, 77–88
and First Amendment protections, 38
and IP law enforcement, 37–41
and logos as semiotic signs, 34
overlap with design laws, 110–113
and semiotics, 36–37
and 3D shape designs, 113
and traditional design, 322
UK concerns regarding, 201–213
useful articles doctrine, 79–83, 88–95, 178
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth), 109–110, 112
Copyright Act 1976, 77, 79–83, 88
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (UK), 38, 189, 192–193, 207–210, 213–214
copyright-patent divide, 78–79
counterfeit, 7–8, 12–16, 45, 107–108, 253, 255–260, 288, 291, 295–296
counterfeit chic, 5, 8, 12, 15
COVID-19 pandemic, 7–8, 11, 21, 23–24, 301, 312
credence goods, 291
cultural appropriation, 193–201
and accusations of stealing, 321–322
and cultural property, 323
factors driving debate over, 337–341
in fashion design, 319–323
moral objections to, 333–337
cultural cosmopolitanism, 339
cultural hybridity, 334, 338
cultural property
and community rights, 332
complexity of defining, 328, 333–336
and cultural appropriation, 323
IP protection of, 323–329
practical limitations to application of IP law, 327–328
rights-based protection of, 329–333
and trademark law, 327
Dabu, 300
De Tocqueville, Alexis, 62
deconstruction, 4
Desai, Deven, 54, 58
design laws, 104, 114–117
overlap of with copyright, 110–113
design patent, 272, 278, 324
and functionality, 70–71, 95, 97–98
and industrial designs, 80
and ornamental designs, 70, 161
protection of design elements in China, 269–270
and utility-function distinction, 178
Designs Act 2003 (Cth), 109, 112, 114–117, 129
differentiation, 60–62
digimodernism, 29–30, 41, 46
Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998, 58
dilution by blurring, 28, 43, 45, 224, 247–249, 251
dilution by tarnishment, 43, 224, 247–249, 251
Dior. See also Christian Dior v China National Intellectual Property Administration
escaramuza controversy, 316–321, 334–337
and patents, 169, 171
and 3D trademark, 254
Dolce & Gabbana, 17–18, 31
downmarket irony, 5, 11, 46
Eco, Umberto, 32
eco-design, 23
Economic Possibilities for Our Grandchildren (Keynes), 50–52, 59
Electric Holiday (film), 28, 37
The Empire of Fashion (Lipovetsky), 30
escaramuza controversy, 316–321, 334–337
Eshelman, Raoul, 27–28
EssilorLuxottica, 169
EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, 226–228, 231, 236, 239
EU Crafts and Industrial Products CIP Regulation, 292–293, 308–310
EU Intellectual Property Office (EUIPO), 150, 190, 275
EU Trade Mark Implementing Regulation (EUTMIR), 148–149, 219, 225, 229, 231, 239–240, 249
European Convention on Human Rights, 42
European Green Deal, 227, 305
European Union Trade Mark Delegated Regulation (EUTMDR), 144
European Union Trade Mark Implementing Regulation (EUTMIR), 144–146
exhaustion rule, 225–226
experience goods, 291
expressive features of design, 80–84
extended reality (XR), 18
fair use, 24, 34, 37–41, 44, 229
fashion. See also functionality of fashion
challenges to legal protection of, 133–134
and freedom of speech, 6
and identity, 5
nature of utility in, 173–178
two-tier hierarchy of piracy in, 255–263
and utility patents, 160–161, 184
fashion memes, 11
fashion studies, 6
fast fashion, 133, 193, 260, 276, 315
and sustainability, 298–299
fast retailing, 170
Fendace, 15, 31
First Amendment protections, 35, 38, 41–43
Forever 21 260, 266
Fortnite, 17, 20–21, 30
freeriding, 218, 224, 228, 243, 247–249, 251
Fromer, Jeanne, 45
functionality of fashion, 71–77, 98–99
and copyright law, 77–88
and IP law, 69–71
and trademark law, 95–97
nature of, 83–88
and patent law, 97–98
and useful articles doctrine, 88–95
Gartner Hype Cycle, 56–57
Gaultier, Jean-Paul, 4
geek chic, 5, 8
gender fluidity, 5
geographical indications (GIs), 283–285, 315
and binding EU sustainability commitments, 303–310
distinctions from trademarks, 286–287
economic impacts of, 293–296
and environmental sustainability, 297–300
features of, 285–289
legal mechanisms of for promoting sustainability, 302–315
normative foundations of, 292–293
and pressures to adapt, 310–315
and protection for traditional textiles, 289–297
and protection of cultural property, 332–333
registration of, 289–292
and sustainable development, 301–302
The Gillette Company and Gillette Group Finland Oy v LA-Laboratories Ltd Oy, 241–242
Global Brand Marketing Inc v YD Pty Ltd, 120–123
Golan v Holder, 38
Google France SARL, Google Inc v Louis Vuitton Malletier SA, 222
Great Depression, 50
Greenberg, Daniel, 26
Gucci, 8, 134, 273, 276
and counterfeit, 16
and cultural appropriation, 337
Forever 21 dispute, 266
and The Hacker Project, 14–15, 31, 34
and knockoffs, 253
and logo hacking, 12–14
and the metaverse, 18–20
patents of, 170
and self-disruption, 5, 8
and shanzhai, 45, 260
sneakers, 102
Gucci Am., Inc. v Guess Inc., 266
Gucci Garden Space, 30
Gucci Town, 19
Gucci Vault Land, 17
Gvasalia, Demna, 9–12, 28, 33, 45, 47
H&M, 170
The Hacker Project, 14–15, 31, 34
hacking, 10–12
Hall, Stuart, 33, 36
Hamilton International Ltd v Vortic LLC, 24
Handler, Michael, 119–120
Harris Tweed, 283, 313–314
Haute Diggity Dog, 6. See also Louis Vuitton Malletier, SA v Haute Diggity Dog LLC
Hermes, 7, 22, 34
Birkin bags, 23, 26, 44, 274–275
and parody, 6, 46
patents of, 170
Hirsch, Fred, 66
Hublot, 19
Hummel, 176
hybrid designs, 71–72, 82, 84, 91, 94, 98, 319
hyperconsumption, 30–31
Hypermodern Times (Lipovetsky), 30
hypermodernism, 30–31, 41, 45
Iancu v Brunetti, 35–36
Information Society Directive (ISD), 203, 205, 209
Instagram, 5, 22, 28
IP Australia, 107–108, 116, 123–124, 129
IP law
and copyright, 37–41
and cultural property, 329
and fashion studies, 6
and functionality of fashion, 69–71
and incentivisation of scarcity, 63–65
options for Australian fashion designers, 108–123
and post-postmodernism, 31, 46–48
practicality of application to cultural property, 327–328
protection differences across jurisdictions, 104–106
and rights-based protections, 329–333
role of in post-scarcity society, 57–65
semiotics as methodological tool, 32–37
social role of, 59–65
as spoiler, 58–59
and trademarks, 41–46
and utility-function distinction, 178
J.C. Penney, 7
Jack Daniel’s Properties Inc v VIP Products LLC, 35
John Varvatos, 7
Kardashian, Kim, 326
Katyal, Sonia, 33
Kawakubo, Rei, 4, 12
Kente cloth, 283
Keynes, John Maynard, 50–52, 59
Kirby, Alan, 29–30
knockoffs, 253, 255, 260–263, 265, 276, 278–279. See also shanzhai
Kurzweil, Ray, 55
L’Oréal SA and Others v Bellure NV and Others, 64, 224
L’Oréal SA v eBay International AG, 222
Lanham Act, 35, 137
Lantink, Duran, 232, 236, 238, 240
Lemley, Mark, 53–54, 58
Levi & Strauss & Co v Blue Bell Inc, 142–144, 155
Levi Strauss & Co, 141–144
Lipovetsky, Gilles, 4, 30–31
Lisbon Express database, 290
localism, 301
Locke, John, 329–330
logo hacking, 5, 12–14, 39
logo-fication, 10, 108
Louis the Game, 20
Louis Vuitton, 7, 33, 87, 266
and EU trademark challenges, 148–149
litigiousness of, 42–44
and logomania, 10
and the metaverse, xxiv, 18, 20
and parody, 6, 46
and self-disruption, 5, 45
and sustainability, 23
and upcycling, 24, 27, 46, 232
Louis Vuitton Malletier, SA v Haute Diggity Dog LLC, 43
Louis Vuitton Malletier, SA v My Other Bag, Inc., 44
Lululemon, 132
sleeve patent, 170, 178
LVMH, 169
MAD Paris, 24–25
Magliocca, Gerard, 54, 58
Margiela, Martin, 12
Marie-Viven, Delphine, 288
Marleasing principle, 210, 214
Mastercrafters Clock & Radio Co v Vacheron & Constantin-LeCoultre Watches, Inc, 64–65
Matal v Tam, 34–35
McCartney, Stella, 74, 91, 102
McKinsey & Company, 5, 130
McQueen, Alexander ‘Lee’, 4, 102
mere association test, 155
metaverse, 6, 9, 16–23, 27, 29–31, 41, 46
Michele, Alessandro, 8, 12, 45
Mitchell v BBC, 197
Moët Hennessy Champagne Services v Cedric Art, 247–249
Morgado, Marcia, 27, 31
Moschino, 12
Mower, Sarah, 14
MSCHF, 6, 23, 26, 104
Muscat v Le, 113
Mythologies (Barthes), 36
Neiman Marcus, 7
Nice Classification, 18, 124–129
Nike, 96, 102
litigiousness of, 103, 175–177
and the metaverse, 19, 21, 23
and parody, 6
patents of, 131, 169, 173, 269
and upcycling, 25–26
NikeLab, 102
Nikeland, 21
non-fungible tokens (NFTs), 6, 9, 16–23, 27, 29–31, 41
non-traditional trademarks (NTTMs)
broad definitions of, 136
design elements as, 273–278
emergence of in fashion, 135–136
in EU law, 144–151
global increase in registrations of, 137
and legal requirement of distinctiveness, 153–159
problems with protection of, 151–153
and reliance test, 156–158
reliance test and acquired distinctiveness, 156
reliance vs association as test of distinctiveness, 154–155
in US law, 137–144
notice and takedown, 58
Office of Harmonization in the Internal Market (OHIM), 148
Organization for an International Geographical Indications Network (oriGIn), 290
original work, 38–41, 189, 203
Osaka, Naomi, 102
Panerai, 19
parody, 12, 37–39, 41, 231, 247
and trademarks, 41–46
pastiche, 11, 37–39
patent. See also design patent; utility patent
copyright divide, 78–79
textile, 131
Patents Act 1990 (Cth), 109
performatism, 27–28, 39
performative luxury, 28
personality theory, 330
Phelps, Nicole, 8
phygital, 17, 22
pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features of design. See expressive features of design
piracy
casual, 106–108
two-tier hierachy of in fashion, 255–263
piracy paradox, 256
Plesner, Nadia, 6
pocket tab. See Levi Strauss & Co
Polo Ralph Lauren, 17
Portakabin Ltd and Portakabin BV v Primakabin BV, 242
position trademarks, 141
postmodernism, 4
post-postmodernism, 4, 27
as analytical framework, 31
and IP law, 46–48
and trademark, 45–46
post-scarcity society, 50–53
and differentiation, 60–62
legal commentary on, 53–57
role of IP law in, 57–65
Prada, 43, 170
produsers, 29, 41
Puma, 176
Radin, Margaret, 330
Raustiala, Kal, 256
The RealReal, 24
recycling, 26–27, 299, 340
Red Sole Mark. See Christian Louboutin:and EU trademark challenges; secondary meaning
referential use defence, 219, 223, 228–232, 236, 239–244, 249–251
registered community design (RCD), 190, 195–196, 203
Reilly, Hey, 13
Relational Aesthetics (Bourriaud), 27
reliance test, 156
accordance of with principles of trademark law, 156–158
as preferred test for NMMTs, 158–159
Response Clothing v Edinburgh Woollen Mill, 209–210
Rich Kids of Instagram, 28
Rifkin, Jeremy, 55
Roblox, 18–21, 30
Rolex, 25, 46
Rothschild, Mason, 6, 22, 46
Rothy’s v Giesswein Walkwaren, 195–198, 202–203, 206
Rushdie, Salman, 339
Samuels, Robert, 28–29
Sandra Ling Designs, 24
saris, 283, 288
satire, 11, 37–39, 43–44, 47
Scardamaglia, Amanda, 124
Second Industrial Revolution, 3
secondary meaning, 138–141, 267, 272
and trademark, 138–144
self-disruption, 5, 8, 45
self-hacking, 12, 16
self-parody, 14
semiotics, 32–37
and copyright-protected works, 36–37
separability analysis, 81–83
shanzhai, 15, 31, 39, 45, 252–255, 278–279
shape marks, 117, 119–120, 124, 126–129, 156, 159. See also 3D shape trademarks
applications of in Australia, 124
and increased demand for trademark protection, 129–132
Sherman, Lauren, 7
Singapore Treaty on the Law of Trade Mark 2006, 137
Skechers, 176
Skjulstad, Synne, 10
sneakers
and celebrity collaborations, 102
as fashion, 100–102
and growth of litigation, 103–104
and increased demand for trademark, 129–132
IP law approaches across jurisdictions, 104–106
and shape mark protections, 117, 120, 124, 126–129
and shoe shape litigation, 120–123
social media, 21–22
Soda-Club (CO2) SA and SodaStream International BV v MySoda Oy, 246
Sprigman, Christopher, 256
Stanford NPE Litigation Database, 175
Star Athletica, L.L.C. v Varsity Brands, Inc., 70–71, 77, 82–83
conceptual shortcomings of, 88–95
and utility patents, 178–183
The State of Fashion 2019 report, 5
The State of Fashion 2020 report, 5
The State of Fashion 2021 report, 7
The State of Fashion 2023 report, 102
The State of Fashion 2025 report, 5
Strange Times (Balenciaga), 20
subculture, 4
sui generis design right, 106, 110, 132, 187, 192–193, 286, 292
supplementary unregistered design right (SUD), 188–189, 191–195, 198–202
sustainable fashion, 23
Szymanska, Aleksandra, 10
3D printing technology, 53–58
3D shape design, 117
and copyright, 111, 113
trademark protection of, 118
3D shape trademark, 104, 106, 108–110, 123, 129, 131, 254, 267–269, 271
protection of in Chinese law, 273–276
‘three pillars’ paradigm, 311
Tiffany & Co, 43
trade dress, 96–97, 104–105, 118, 131, 156, 158, 178–179, 272–273, 325
Trade Mark Directive (TMD), 219, 225, 229–231, 239–240, 242, 245, 249
Trade Marks Act 1995 (Cth), 109, 117–119, 123–124
trade secret law, 324
trademark
and cultural property, 325–327
dilution by blurring, 28, 43, 45, 224, 247–249, 251
dilution by tarnishment, 43, 224, 247–249, 251
distinctions from geographical indicaions, 286–287
exhaustion rule, 26, 225–226
and fashion functionality, 95–97
and First Amendment protections, 41–43
and IP law enforcement, 41–46
and parody, 41–46
post-postmodern analysis of, 45–46
protection of design elements in China, 265–269
referential use defence, 219, 223, 228–232
and secondary meaning, 138–144, 267, 272
semiotic nature of, 32, 35–36
and upcycling, 219–228
and use in relation to goods or services, 221–225
Trademark Review and Adjudication Board (TRAB), 254–255, 267, 274–275, 277
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 115, 117–118, 135–137, 154, 204, 229, 288, 292
and geographical indications (GIs), 285–286
transformativeness, 39–40
2020 Social and Environmental Sustainability Report (LVMH), 23
Two Pesos, Inc. v Taco Cabana, Inc., 272
Two Treatises of Government (Locke), 329–330
UK Intellectual Property Office (UKIPO), 189–190, 200
UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 323
unfair competition, 97, 118, 177, 255, 263
protection of design elements in China, 270–273
United Kingdom
appropriateness of IP regime for fashion in, 193–201
concerns over copyright in, 201–213
copying and design protection in, 196–198
design protection, post-Brexit, in, 214
duration of design protection in, 193–194
IP protection over design rights in, 185–189
legal framework for protected designs in, 189–193
overlapping IP regimes in, 186–188
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 298
unregistered community design right (UCD), 188, 191–200, 203, 270
upcycling, 23–26, 219, 251
and avant-garde movements, 236–239
and COVID-19 pandemic, 23–24
and environmental protection, 231–232
honest practices of, 239–251
as paradigmatic of altermodernism, 27
and referential use defence, 219, 223, 228–232
societal value of, 232–236
and trademark protection, 219–228
use in relation to goods or services, 221–225
useful articles doctrine, 79–83, 88–95, 178
utility patent, 70–71, 78, 98
by classification, 161–166
and fashion, 160–161, 183–184
and large fashion firms, 166–173
litigation, 173–178
and nature of utility in fashion, 183
value of, 173
Van Cleef & Arpels (VCA), 267–273
Varsity Brands, Inc. v Star Athletica, LLC, 264
VCA, 278
VCA v Shanghai Aijing, 272
Veblen goods, 31, 62
Versace
and downmarket irony, 5
and The Hacker Project, 15, 31
and upcycling, 27
Vetements, 9–12, 33, 47
VF Corp, 170
Viking Gas A/S v Kosan Gas A/S, 245–246
von Wachenfeldt, Paula, 28
WaterRower v Liking, 210–213
What Goes Around Comes Around, 24
WIPO Copyright Treaty, 204
works of artistic craftsmanship (WOACs), 111–113
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 290
Yamamoto, Yohji, 4, 102
Yunchuang Design v Kashilan Clothing, 264
Yves Saint Laurent, 139–141
zeitgeist, 3, 6, 48

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  • Index
  • Edited by David Tan, National University of Singapore, Jeanne Fromer, New York University, Dev Gangjee, University of Oxford
  • Book: Fashion and Intellectual Property
  • Online publication: 27 October 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009519618.017
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  • Index
  • Edited by David Tan, National University of Singapore, Jeanne Fromer, New York University, Dev Gangjee, University of Oxford
  • Book: Fashion and Intellectual Property
  • Online publication: 27 October 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009519618.017
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  • Index
  • Edited by David Tan, National University of Singapore, Jeanne Fromer, New York University, Dev Gangjee, University of Oxford
  • Book: Fashion and Intellectual Property
  • Online publication: 27 October 2025
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009519618.017
Available formats
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