Introduction
The nineteenth century was a significant one for the Serbian people, both politically and socially. The struggle against the centuries-old Ottoman ruleFootnote 1 culminated in the First (1804) and Second (1815) Serbian Uprisings, after which the Principality of Serbia was formed, ruled by Prince Miloš Obrenović (1780/83?–1860).Footnote 2 With rapid economic growth, Ottoman cultural patterns were gradually replaced by those of bourgeois Europe. Thanks to trade contacts as well as family ties, a substantial number of educated Serbs from the Habsburg Empire moved to the Principality of Serbia. And these prominent and educated Serbs from the Habsburg Empire played an important role in the development of the young Principality of Serbia.Footnote 3
The initial steps in cultural life appeared after the Second Serbian Uprising, during the first reign of Prince Miloš Obrenović. The first piano was brought at the prince's request and placed in the home of his personal physician, Vito Romita, from whose wife the Prince's daughter Jelisaveta Obrenović (1814–1848) received not only piano lessons, but ‘a European education’.Footnote 4 Princess Jelisaveta started learning the piano in 1823, when she was ten years old. Compositions for her were sent from Pest by Josif Milovuk (1787–1850), a merchant and book publisher, and one of the founders, in 1826, of Matica Srpska, the oldest Serbian literary, scientific and cultural institutions in Pest.Footnote 5 Important from the musico-sociological point of view is that the piano was ‘acquired by a member of the richest and most powerful family in Serbia, in order to allow his daughter, a representative of the newly formed courtly elite, to further emphasize her privileged status by playing on it’.Footnote 6 As early as 1829, the children of the prince's younger brother, Jevrem Obrenović (1790–1856), also learned to play the piano as well as guitar with Joseph Schlesinger (1794–1870), who came from Novi Sad, where he served as a conductor of the City Orchestra.Footnote 7 The piano was quickly adopted by the upper classes as well, and became an integral part of the salons of wealthy merchants, civil servants, and intellectuals, as well as the settled foreigners, who were of great importance in nurturing playing music at home.Footnote 8 And along with the piano, playing the guitar also enjoyed great popularity.Footnote 9
In 1831, at the initiative of Prince Miloš Obrenović, Joseph Schlesinger founded the first military orchestra in Kragujevac, then capital of the Principality of Serbia,Footnote 10 under the name Knjaževsko-srbska banda (Serbian Princely Band). At that time, in Belgrade, the Turkish vizier had his own orchestra led by a mehterbașı, which included violins, bass drum, cymbal, tambourine and triangle. Very similar were the Romani orchestras, which mainly consisted of stringed instruments and percussion. Although Prince Miloš Obrenović himself enjoyed listening to the Romani orchestras, he wanted to establish an orchestra composed of European musical instruments, following the example of other European courts. By introducing the first pianos, giving their children music lessons, and founding the first military orchestra, Prince Miloš Obrenović and his brother Jevrem were the initiators of ‘Europeanization’ in the newly formed Principality of Serbia.Footnote 11
The arrival of Joseph Schlesinger, and later Alojz KalauzFootnote 12 and Milan Milovuk (1825–1883), the son of Josif Milovuk, from the Habsburg Empire to the Principality of Serbia, marked the beginning of the founding of musical life in the newly formed Serbian state. In addition to giving piano lessons to the children of the princely family and founding the first military orchestra, Schlesinger made significant contributions in many areas of musical life in Serbia. He performed with the Serbian Princely Band at various military and civilian occasions: at military exercises and parades, as well as at court, concerts, public ceremonies, welcoming foreign diplomats and, from 1835, in the newly founded Princely-Serbian Theatre. Schlesinger composed primarily marches and salon social dances for balls and various national occasions, as well as music for theatrical plays. He harmonized folk songs which were gladly performed accompanied by the piano or the guitar in bourgeois homes and at various public events alike.
The Czech musician Alojz Kalauz arrived in Belgrade in 1843, where he worked as a piano teacher, performed as a pianist and composed salon piano music.Footnote 13 His activity as a folk music collector is of special importance, since he compiled Serbian traditional and urban songs and published them in Vienna under the title Srpski napjevi (Serbian Songs; 1850, 1851).Footnote 14 Both volumes contain prefaces in Serbian, French and German, in which Kalauz indicates his criteria for selecting songs, and points to a clear difference between the songs found in rural and urban milieus, and between those with foreign influences and the folk ones. Kalauz also noted tonal and rhythmic particularities in Serbian folk songs. These collections also reflect the music repertoire that was popular in Belgrade bourgeois salons at that time. Kalauz's salon compositions for piano were also very popular, among them: Fantazija Bisenija (Bisenija Fantasy), Beogradski kadril (Belgrade Quadrille), Varijacije na pesmu ‘Što se bore misli moje’ (Variations on the Song ‘So Restlessly, Why Do I Dwell’), and others.
Milan Milovuk, who came to Belgrade from Pest, also gave a significant boost to the musical life in Belgrade. Though primarily a lawyer and economist, Milovuk obtained his music education at an early age and devoted his entire life to music.Footnote 15 He organized salon gatherings in his home, together with his wife Katarina (née Đorđević, 1844–1913).Footnote 16 The First Belgrade Singing Society was founded in 1853, during one of such salon evening. Milovuk was the first conductor of this originally all-male choir, which was established on the model of the Austrian and German singing societies, for ‘leisure, mutual amusement and music training’, in order to enrich the modest cultural and social life in the capital of the Principality of Serbia.Footnote 17 Under Milovuk's leadership, the repertoire was based on simple compositions by German, Hungarian and Czech composers. Milovuk founded a private school within the Belgrade Singing Society, where he taught violin, cello and music theory.Footnote 18 He also published the first theoretical books on music in Serbian: Teorički osnovi muzike (Theoretical Foundations of Music; 1866) and Nauka o muzici (The Science of Music; 1867).Footnote 19
Together, Schlesinger, Kalauz and Milovuk laid the foundations for the development of musical art in the Principality of Serbia. Their work was followed by the activity of the first Serbian-educated musician Kornelije Stanković (1831–1865),Footnote 20 who is recognized in Serbian music historiography as a founder of the national movement in music and whose work as a composer, pianist, folk music collector and conductor draws on the achievements of his predecessors, but also provides guidelines for the further direction of Serbian music in the nineteenth century.Footnote 21 His education in Vienna, which was at the time the centre of the Slavic elite and under Simon Sechter (1788–1867), a renowned professor of the Conservatory, was crucial for his artistic development. Stanković published collections of Serbian folk songs arranged for voice and piano, solo piano and mixed choir (Srbske narodne pesme, Vienna, 1858, 1859, 1862 and 1863). And his collections provided a resource of Serbian folk melodies for composers such as Johann Strauss, Rimsky Korsakov and Tchaikovsky.Footnote 22 In Vienna he also published three books of the traditional church chant of the Serbian people (1862, 1863 and 1864). Kornelije Stanković's work on establishing a national style in Serbian music was supported by prominent intellectuals in the Habsburg Empire and the Principality of Serbia alike.Footnote 23
Salon gatherings organized in Belgrade from the 1830s to the 1870s point to the emergence of a new cultural identity through the coexistence and merging of different cultural models: Western European, Ottoman and Serbian.Footnote 24 This article draws on a selection of these gatherings from this period. Starting with the first salons, organized in the 1830s in the home of Tomanija and Jevrem Obrenović, salon gatherings will then be viewed through the prism of exclusively women's salons (for example, the salons of Princess Anka Obrenović (later) Konstantinović, and her friends Marija Milutinović, the first woman lawyer in the Principality of Serbia, and Meira, the wife of the last Belgrade Vizier Ali Rizâ Paşa), followed by salons in which members of both sexes took part. These mixed-sex salons are represented here by the salons of Princess Anka Obrenović, Count Teodor Herbez and his wife Jelenka, and the bourgeois salon of grammar school professor Gavrilo Vitković and his wife Lujza.
Institution of the Salon
Salon gatherings provided a wide range of social, cultural, artistic and political practices in the nineteenth-century Principality of Serbia. While Serbs in the Habsburg Empire had been already hosting salons since the eighteenth century, in the Principality of Serbia they appeared only in the late 1830s, first in Belgrade.Footnote 25 The overall appearance of the family home, including interior design, was changed in the new principality by the gradual abandonment of the oriental lifestyle. In the new principality, the architecture of the family home changed from an Ottoman model in which privacy separation living space was a high priority to a Central European one characterized by salons – rooms for entertaining large groups of visitors.Footnote 26 The salon was a unique environment in which the public and private spheres were intertwined. The most important room in bourgeois homes, the salon was where the family presented itself to the public.
Salons were organized in both court and bourgeois circles. They differed not only in terms of the type and scope of socializing (regular weekly visits and salon evenings organized for a large number of guests), or the time of day or season for which they were organized, but above all in relation to their participants. Thus, there were exclusively women's salons as well as mixed ones in which both sexes took part. Court salons in princely houses in the Principality of Serbia had a similar function to those held in bourgeois homes. Guests were welcomed in court salons on specific days, which made it possible for ‘a ruler to appear before the people in, so to say, a less authoritative way’.Footnote 27
In the period from the mid-nineteenth century to the World War One, every fine house in Belgrade had a salon, and salon gatherings were an integral part of the bourgeois lifestyle. Salons were furnished with comfortable salon sets, armchairs, two-seaters and three-seaters, as well as small tables and other furniture characteristic of Biedermeier culture.Footnote 28 Family valuables (silver, porcelain, glass) were displayed in showcases, while paintings, photographs, and portraits of family members hung on the walls. The items in the salon were diverse: from ‘modern European furniture, carpets, Pirot carpets, curtains and lace, to tapestry, silver candlesticks, Viennese porcelain and selected books’.Footnote 29 Through illustrated catalogues, Viennese innovative home furnishing ideas reached small towns in the Balkans. In addition to the works of local writers, French adventure novels could also be found in private libraries. Since the 1830s, the most precious and the most representative object in the salon of a Serbian bourgeois family was the piano. And in the 1860s, a family photo album became a staple of the salon where it ‘secured its position on one of the tables near the piano’.Footnote 30
Friendly conversation was a key aspect of socializing. The hosts of salons tried to ensure that all guests participated in the conversation, and that the conversation was refreshed and aimed in the desired direction or interrupted by a musical intermission if necessary. Conversation topics were mostly current events – theatre, artists’ guest appearances, the latest ball, a new engagement, a novel, weather and the like – though the idealized image of socializing was not always realistic: in the ever-present conversations about politics there were sharp differences of opinion. A buffet in the form of small refreshments was also a common practice. A significant portion of the entertainment programme was filled with music, with the piano being given priority and four-handed playing being a favourite. However, music was also played on other instruments in the salons and people also gladly sang. As a rule, salon gatherings ended with the performance of national and foreign dances. The entertainment programme did not always have a precise order, perhaps starting with various board games, before moving to playing, singing, reading poetry and dancing.Footnote 31
The First Intellectual and Artistic Circles in Belgrade: Salons of Tomanija and Jevrem Obrenović
The first salon gatherings were held in Belgrade in the 1830s in the house of Tomanija (1796–1881) and Jevrem Obrenović, during the reign of Prince Miloš Obrenović. One of the most important patrons of his time and an avid advocate of enlightenment, Jevrem Obrenović was highly influential in the political and cultural life of the Principality of Serbia. He gathered prominent writers in his home, financially supported the establishment of the National Library in Belgrade, as well as publishing new books as a sponsor, and also contributed to the education of students abroad.Footnote 32 His cultural and educational mission was reflected in the education of his children. His only son, Miloš, studied French and German with the writer Dimitrije Tirol (1793–1857). Jevrem also had five daughters – Jelena, Simona (Simka), Anka, Jekaterina and Stana, among whom Princess Anka Obrenović (1821–1868), who studied the piano and the guitar as well as German and French, stood out. From an early age, her translations of short works of German fiction were printed in Serbian periodicals. She published the first book of translated German stories Naravoučitelne povesti (Educational Stories) in 1836. In the same year she began a diary, which she kept for less than two years, until the beginning of 1838.Footnote 33
The salons of Tomanija and Jevrem Obrenović, have all the characteristics of the nineteenth-century salon culture. In spacious rooms furnished in a modern style, guests were served specialties prepared especially for the occasion, which were a novelty in the Principality of Serbia at that time: ‘the rooms were large, comfortable, warm, and richly lit with millihertz candles. There were always a lot of wonderful sweet and savoury delicacies on the big table to eat, which at that time in Serbia could only be found in the residence of master Jevrem’.Footnote 34 The home of Jevrem Obrenović hosted the first intellectual circle of Belgrade, where local and foreign prominent citizens and diplomats gathered. In addition to current topics from everyday life, the guests enjoyed literature, poetry and music. The conversation was often conducted in German. The works of mostly Serbian, German and French poets and writers were read, and various literary issues were also discussed.
The Austrian consul at the Serbian court Antun Mihanović (1796–1861) lent a special spirit to the salon gatherings.Footnote 35 There he gladly talked about the cities in which he had lived and served (Zagreb, Rijeka, Naples, Venice, Padua), recited his poems or discussed literature and language.Footnote 36 The English consul George Lloyd Hodges (1790–1862), who began his diplomatic career in the Balkans when he was appointed the first British consul in the Principality of Serbia on 30 January 1837, was also a welcome guest.Footnote 37 Hodges actively participated in discussions on various topics. Konstantin Ranos (1812–1866),Footnote 38 who was a professor of French language and literature to the sons of Prince Miloš Obrenović, read the verses of his close friend Alphonse de Lamartine (1790–1869).Footnote 39 He was also happy to talk about French contemporary writers, and gave several lectures on ancient Greek woman poets, especially Sappho.
The daughters of Tomanija and Jevrem Obrenović – Jelena, Simona and Anka, along with their teacher Kristina Tirol – were responsible for the musical part of the programme. They played the piano solo or in four hands.Footnote 40 In addition to playing the piano, Serbian folk songs were often sung. The Austrian consul Antun Mihanović wrote the sonnet ‘Viđenje’ (Vision) and the poem ‘Kamena dieva’ (The Stone Maiden) in honour of Princess Anka, with whom he was in love (Fig. 1). A setting of ‘Kamena dieva’ by the Croatian composer Ferdo Livadić (1799–1879) became very popular. According to Stošić, ‘it was sung all over Serbia and Vojvodina in the nineteenth century’.Footnote 41
Ferdo Livadić, ‘Kamena dieva’ (The Stone Maiden), bars 11–18
In their salons, Tomanija and Jevrem Obrenović (Fig. 2) hosted distinguished visitors to Belgrade, among them Michal Jaborsky (1805–1894), a violinist and director of the Timișoara City Theatre OrchestraFootnote 42 who played in the Obrenović salon in addition to his three public concerts during his stay in Belgrade in 1842.Footnote 43 After the departure of Consul Mihanović from Serbia, at the end of 1838, the salon gatherings in the home of Jevrem Obrenović lost their earlier momentum.Footnote 44
Jevrem Obrenović with his son Miloš and daughter Anka
Women's Salons
In the 1860s, Princess Anka Obrenović, now married to Aleksandar Konstantinović,Footnote 45 organized salons that represented important social and cultural gathering places of the capital, hosting the most prominent fellow citizens and foreigners who stayed in Belgrade. In addition to general women's salons, she organized art salons, both for women only and for both sexes.Footnote 46 The difference between women's salons and women's art salons was in the guests who took part, as well as in the thematic content of the gathering. It is important to mention that women's salons were also organized in middle-class homes. After the arrival in Belgrade of the sultan's Vizier from Vidin, Ali Rizâ Paşa, Footnote 47 and his wife Meira, Princess Anka introduced the women only art salons. Meira, who had become a close friend of Anka's was not allowed to attend the mixed salons. Ali Rizâ Paşa (d. 1876) arrived in Serbia in 1862, after the Turkish bombing of Belgrade, at a time of very tense relations between Serbia and Turkey. Being a wise politician, he significantly contributed to the improvement of relations between the two countries. Hailing from an aristocratic family in Istanbul, Ali Rizâ Paşa was educated in Paris. He spoke French, German and English, and upon his arrival in Belgrade he studied Serbian. During his stay in Belgrade, he often went to the theatre, as well as to the balls organized by Prince Mihailo Obrenović.Footnote 48 For the social and cultural life of Belgrade, it is important to consider the role of Ali Rizâ Paşa's first and chief wife, Meira, who arrived in Belgrade with him along with a large entourage of officials and a harem. Greek by her father and French by her mother, Meira was born on the Greek island of Tinos, where she was educated by French teachers. In addition to her knowledge of Turkish, Greek and French, she studied Serbian and German in Belgrade.
Women's salons had an educational function: they served to discuss innovations in education and the upbringing of women and young ladies. Princess Anka Obrenović Konstantinović organized women's salons for wives of higher ranked officials and wealthy merchants. The guests brought their daughters to the salons to have them learn ‘instructive European things’: good manners, home decorating, flower growing and gardening. Princess Anka advised her guests to read and visit theatre performances as much as possible.Footnote 49 On the other hand, the teacher and the first woman lawyer in Serbia, Marija S. Milutinović (1810–1875),Footnote 50 organized women's salons in her home on Tuesdays, which had two parts: practical-instructive and educational. Very educated and gladly seen among writers and poets, she instructed guests of her salons on ‘how to culturally manage the whole household’ (furnishing apartments ‘according to the Viennese model’, preparing various dishes, handicrafts, growing flower gardens), and then she avidly read Serbian folk epic poems, especially those on the heroism of women, and told French and German stories of didactic character. Milutinović was a close associate of Vuk S. Karadžić (1787–1864),Footnote 51 and she spoke about his work. Such gatherings regularly ended with the singing of folk songs, and often with the performing of some of the Serbian folk dances, which were played on the piano. These types of salons were primarily aimed at the education and upbringing young women, with a clear aspiration to cultivate patriotic self-awareness.
The women's art salons were primarily organized to give women of the courtly elite and the highest state circles the opportunity for entertainment and art appreciation. Gatherings in the women's art salons of Anka Obrenović started at 2 p.m. and ended in winter at 5 p.m. and in summer at 6 p.m. at the latest. In addition to prominent Belgrade women, Anka invited wives of foreign diplomats accredited at the Serbian court, as well as wives of senior Austrian officers from military garrisons in VojvodinaFootnote 52 (Zemun, Pančevo, Petrovaradin), mostly Serbian and Croatian women. The dress of these women included both traditional and modern European styles. Princess Anka and her mother Tomanija, and the wives of foreign diplomats and Austrian officers, dressed in European fashion, although Anka sometimes wore ‘luxurious Serbian folk costumes’. The wives of foreign diplomats pointed out that the women guests at salons of Princess Anka Obrenović Konstantinović were as fashionable as those at the most elegant European salon gatherings.Footnote 53 During the programme intermissions, guests were offered a ‘rich buffet’.
Everything was served from the finest porcelain, and solid silver cutlery. Water, mineral and natural and various wines were drunk from glasses made of multicoloured glass, with different flowers and figures design. Chefs brought from Vienna, Pest and Timișoara prepared the most exquisite savoury pastries and modern cakes, which had not been seen in Belgrade before. The first exquisite cakes in Serbia were served at Anka's gatherings.Footnote 54
Gatherings began with courtesy stories from the everyday life of the guests, and then the hostess read poems by French and German romantic poets, in the original or translation, but she would also always read one Serbian folk poem or story. Other guests also took part in reading poetry and prose, as well as the daily press, so political issues in Europe were also discussed, as well as Serbia's position on the socio-political map of the time. Playing and singing was an indispensable part of women's art salons, with playing the piano in four hands being the favourite one. The women's art salons gatherings ended with performing on the piano Serbian folk dances, waltzes and csárdáses, which were very modern in 1860s Belgrade.Footnote 55
It is interesting that Ali Rizâ Paşa's wife Meira also held women's art salons, whose regular guests, in addition to the prominent women of Belgrade, included women from Vojvodina. The luxury salons were decorated with Persian carpets and items made of porcelain, silver, gold and amber. The guests sat on feather pillows made of velvet and satin, which were placed on the carpets and floor, with the exception of the women guests from Vojvodina, who sat on chairs, ‘because of their large corsets like armour’.Footnote 56 Guests were served traditional Turkish dishes. Paşa's wife Meira dressed in a more European way in the house, but she wore a Turkish traditional costume with niqab when she went for a visit or when she received guests.
Since she played the piano, the violin and the guitar very well and sang beautifully, Meira often entertained her guests by performing on one of the instruments or singing to them. Her favourite song was ‘Sunce jarko, ne sijaš jednako’ (Bright Sun, You Do not Shine Equally). The lyrics of this song were written by Isidor Ćirić (1844–1893) and it was published by Kornelije Stanković in Vienna in 1862, in the first book of Srbske narodne pesme (Serbian Folk Songs) dedicated to Prince Mihailo Obrenović. Tchaikovsky was also attracted to the beauty of this folk song and used it in the Marche Slave in B-flat minor, Op. 31. The women of Belgrade sang Serbian folk songs, while guests from Vojvodina, in addition to old Serbian and Croatian songs, also gladly performed German and Hungarian ones.Footnote 57
It is especially interesting to consider the dance segment of the gatherings in the salons of Ali Rizâ Paşa's wife Meira, which ended with dancing čoček (chochek),Footnote 58 as well as European dances, of which women guests from Vojvodina were particularly fond. ‘Famous čoček women dancers Zaida and her daughters Ajša and Zaza’Footnote 59 danced in the salon of Ali Rizâ Paşa's wife Meira. Thus, the guests, and some of them for the first time, could see the belly dancing of these excellent dancers. The most popular dance was the waltz, which Meira danced very well.Footnote 60 The women guests in the salon danced with each other, most often to the piano. In the end, each guest received a gift basket with southern fruit, yellow sugar, rahat lokum, candies, musk soap, rose oil and a bottle of Western European fragrance. Meira's salons offer a window into the semi-private world of the wife of a high-ranking Ottoman official. Extremely well-read and musically educated, Meira was the heart of her art salons, achieving a unique blend of East and West through her own activity and the diversity of the women she hosted, their clothes, different languages and alternating ‘sounds’ of čoček and waltzes.Footnote 61
The salons of Meira and of Princess Anka were visited by the same guests, who were friends with each other. In addition to prominent Belgrade women, the wives of foreign diplomats, accredited at the Serbian court, and the wives of senior officers from military garrisons in Vojvodina, there were also actresses, poets and distinguished guests from abroad. Among them was the wife of the Italian Consul Stefano Scovasso who was noted to have read Giacomo Leopardi's verses and excerpts from Alessandro Manzoni's I promessi sposi in the original, and who played the popular Italian patriotic song of the time Viva l'Italia on the piano.Footnote 62 During their stay in Belgrade, from September 1863 to April 1864, the English suffragists Adelina Paulina Irby and Georgina Muir Mackenzie also visited these women's salons.Footnote 63 During that period, they studied Serbian with Professor Nikola Krstić (1829–1902) and prepared for publication the notes from their travels.Footnote 64 The women's salons of Anka Obrenović and Ali Rizâ Paşa's wife Meira are an interesting testimony to the cultural coexistence of members of the Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim religions.
Mixed Salons
Mixed salons drew a much wider circle of distinguished guests, since all key positions in the social life of the capital belonged to men. Prominent politicians, diplomats, professors, artists and other important people attended such gatherings. It is also important that these gatherings had no curfew, unlike women's salons which ended by 5 p.m., and in summer no later than 6 p.m.
The mixed salons organized by Princess Anka Obrenović Konstantinović in the 1860s had an artistico-political character: poems and stories were read, the piano, violin and guitar were played, and domestic and foreign affairs were discussed. These salons were more diverse than the women's only ones in their inclusion of intellectual content along with music and literature; the guests were often university professors, and the political dimension was very pronounced in conversations – a feature that was present, but much less prominent in the women's salons.
Although politics was discussed primarily by men, women also took part in the conversations. Among the active women participants in such discussions was Katarina (Đorđević) Milovuk, the first woman principal of the Women's College in Belgrade and wife of the choirmaster of the Belgrade Singing Society Milan Milovuk. Ali Rizâ Paşa was also a welcome guest, and the spiritus movens of the salons was the painter Stevan Todorović (1832–1925), who spoke to the guests about contemporary German and Hungarian fine arts. Todorović was a good friend of composer and pianist Kornelije Stanković (Fig. 3), and he often performed as an amateur singer (baritone) with him at concerts. Their friendship had begun during their studies in Vienna, and they brought ideas from the Habsburg capital and the pan-Slavic circle of intellectuals and artists to Belgrade and the Belgrade Singing Society – ideas that helped to establish a Serbian national art. Todorović was first a member of the Belgrade Singing Society and later their notary, secretary and president.Footnote 65
Stevan Todorović, Portrait of Kornelije Stanković, 1850
During Stanković's stay in Belgrade, in May and June 1861, Princess Anka Obrenović Konstantinović organized several salon gatherings in his honour, in order to present him to respectable Belgraders. In addition to folk songs, her guests ‘played classical pieces on the violin, guitar and piano’.Footnote 66 Stanković's repertoire included, in addition to his own works (variations on Serbian folk songs, quadrilles, Serbian folk dances), compositions by Franz Liszt and Sigismund Thalberg, as well as then-popular and today-forgotten salon pianists-composers such as Jacob Blumenthal (1829–1908), Louis Lacomb (1818–1884), Rudolf Willmers (1821–1878) and Josef Eduard Maximilian Pirkhert (1817–1881). His repertoire primarily included compositions showing technical bravura – opera paraphrases, etudes and fantasies. Contemporary articles and concert programmes show that often performed the following compositions: F. Liszt, Illustrations du Prophéte – Les Patineuers, S. 414; Schubert/Liszt, Ständchen; J. Blumenthal, La Source. Caprice pour le Piano, Op.1; R. Willmers: Sehnsucht am Meere, Op. 8; Ein Sommertag in Norwegen, Grosse Fantasie, Op. 27; L. Lacombe: Grosse Octaven Etude; E.M.J. Pirkhert: Etude, Op. 10, No. 5, D-flat major; S. Thalberg: Marche funèbre variée, Op. 59; Grand caprice sur des motifs de l'opéra la Sonnambula di Bellini, Op. 46.Footnote 67 In the salons of Anka Obrenović Konstantinović, Stanković played alone or in four hands with the guests or he accompanied Stevan Todorović's baritone. His piano variations on the song ‘So Restlessly, Why Do I Dwell’, Op.6 (Fig. 4), which he published in Vienna in 1857,Footnote 68 were very popular, as were his arrangements of Serbian folk songs for voice and piano on love themes, such as ‘Aj, sjela moma na pendžeru’ (Ah, a Maiden is Sitting on a Window; Fig. 5). The guests danced waltzes and csárdáses with Stanković and taught him Serbian folk dances – kolos.Footnote 69
Kornelije Stanković, ‘Što se bore misli moje’ (So Restlessly, Why Do I Dwell), piano variations, Op. 6, bars 22–25
Kornelije Stanković, ‘Aj, sjela moma na pendžeru’ (Ah, a Maiden is Sitting at the Window), bars 1–4Footnote 71
In addition to the ruling Obrenović dynasty, salon gatherings were held in the home of Teodor Herbez (1790–1866) and his wife Jelenka, as well as in other bourgeois houses. Herbez was educated in Padua, where he received his doctorate in Law; after completing his studies he moved to Russia, where he earned a higher military rank. From 1844, the Herbezs held salons in their large, elegant house, equipped with furniture from Vienna, in the evenings, and especially in the winter period. Their home was the centre of social life in the capital; the regular participants of these gatherings included members of the courtly elite, members of the State Council, professors of the Belgrade Lyceum, intellectuals, artists, politicians, military officers, and others.Footnote 70 Other welcome guests included Prince Mihailo Obrenović, Princess Anka Obrenović Konstantinović, the President of the State Council Stojan Simić and his wife, professors of the Belgrade Lyceum Konstantin Ranos, Konstantin Branković, Josif Pančić, and the writer and diplomat Matija Ban with his wife. Mrs. Jelenka Herbez was a role model for distinguished Belgrade ladies: she spoke Turkish and Romanian and, thanks to her husband, she also had the opportunity to learn French and German, as well as to take piano lessons. Also a something of a fashion leader, Mrs. Herbez played the piano and entertained guests dressed in the latest European dress.Footnote 72 The salon evenings organized by the Herbezs contributed to his reputation and expanded the network of social contacts. At the salon gatherings, people sang and played, and discussed domestic and foreign politics as well as contemporary writers. The guests also enjoyed popular international and Serbian folk dances.Footnote 73
At the beginning of the 1870s, the salon type gatherings from court and aristocratic luxurious salons became widespread in the more modest homes of Belgrade intellectuals. For example, in the house of grammar school professor and historian Gavrilo Vitković (1829/30–1902) and his wife Lujza, the gatherings were held twice a week and lasted until the early morning hours. Gavrilo Vitković had completed primary and secondary school in Buda, and had studied technical sciences at the University of Pest. He moved to Serbia in 1855 and worked as a professor in grammar schools in Kragujevac and Belgrade.Footnote 74 In the salon of the Vitković family the guests read political dailies and discussed current socio-political issues. They also discussed translated excerpts from the works of contemporary French, Russian and German realist writers and talked about ‘contemporary political doctrines of the new socialism in Europe’.Footnote 75 Lujza Vitković and her sister Jelena actively participated in the discussions and played the piano. Russian romances were sung and played in Belgrade for the first time in the Vitković family home. Prominent guests included the politician and founder of socialism among Serbs, Svetozar Marković (1846–1875) and his brother Jevrem. The sisters Milica and Anka Ninković, originally from Novi Sad, were also regular participants. The Ninković sisters, who studied pedagogy in Zurich, were avid supporters of socialist ideas.Footnote 76 At salon gatherings, they talked about Russian women socialists who had been forced to emigrate to Switzerland due to their political activity. At the end of the 1870s, the first woman doctor in Serbia, Draga Ljočić (1855–1926), who completed her studies in Zurich and was a prominent fighter for gender equality, joined this circle. The salons in the home of the Vitković family indicate different educational and cultural goals, both in the choice of guests and in the content of such gatherings. Women actively discussed current political, social and economic issues and the position of women in society, and they did not hesitate to act publicly.Footnote 77
In the city milieu, taverns often ‘substituted’ for the institution of salon. Only men gathered in them, so the possibility of making male–female acquaintances was excluded, as was the possibility of the lady-host as the central person in the salon. Such gatherings took place in a public space, and everyone had to pay for their own order. The participants were connected by common interests. There were present ensembles (mostly wind or tamburitza ensembles) that performed a popular repertoire.Footnote 78
Conclusion
Foreign diplomats who were accredited at the Serbian court, as well as teachers of children of the princely family Obrenović and educated Serbs from the Habsburg Empire, played a significant role in the cultural transfer and adoption of European musical practices and customs in salon gatherings in the Principality of Serbia during the nineteenth century. The process of transforming Belgrade from an oriental city to a modern European one is evident in the furnishing of salons, the clothing, the dishes that were consumed, and the types of socializing and entertainment that were organized. The ethnic diversity of the population, as well as the intersection of diverse cultural flows (Serbian, Ottoman and Western European) was also reflected in salon gatherings.
There is no doubt that different types of salons were of great importance for the cultural and social life of Belgrade. In their various forms, whether they were limited to conversations over coffee or included a wider programme (music, singing, reading poetry and prose, dancing, exchange of patriotic ideas, and so forth), private salons compensated for the lack of public associations and professional institutions, which were just beginning to develop at the time. Both adults and younger people also wanted to see each other in a wider circle, to talk to each other, dance, play music, play board games and make new acquaintances.Footnote 79
The programmes of the selected salons examined here show a variety of literature was read aloud: Serbian folk poems and tales as well as works by Serbian poets and writers, and the works by French, Italian and German authors, either in the original or in translation. Current events were also a feature: excerpts from the local and foreign press were often read out and commented on, and various topics were discussed, with the conversation conducted in Serbian, French or German. Salons were important for the organization of social and cultural life, for the realization of various aspects of education, and for the attainment of national and political goals. It was in the salons that the need for institutions of importance for the cultural life – such as the establishment of the first Belgrade Singing Society or the construction of the building of the National Theatre – of the capital was discussed. Finally, dancing was perennial favourite. Socializing could spontaneously turn into dancing, and sometimes dancing was the expected conclusion to the evening. In court and bourgeois salons in Belgrade, gatherings, almost as a rule, ended with performing popular international and Serbian folk dance, and this contributed to the popularity of dances in piano literature.
Since public life offered few opportunities to hear music, the music in salons was an important aspect of the city's musical life. Playing the piano in four hands, a common practice throughout Europe at the time, was a favourite.Footnote 80 The repertoire included dances, marches, arrangements of folk songs and dances in the form of variations, potpourris and fantasies. Arrangements of orchestral or choral works were often performed on the piano, as well as arrangements of popular songs from operas and operettas, which were intended for public musical life. The repertoire of these is preserved in music albums – bound collections, from the private property of Serbian families, with collected printed music editions and transcriptions of selected compositions.Footnote 81
Through the salons, enlightened women forged a new role for women in society. These women were able to break with the previous traditions in which they were tied only to the family, and they established new values based on education and intellectual potential.Footnote 82 An examination of the content of gatherings in Belgrade's court and bourgeois salons reveals the significant role of women, not only socially and culturally, but also in the political life of the capital. Following the example of the European model of salons, the women played an important role in the emancipation of women in society during the construction of the modern Serbian state. The step from the private sphere to the public, at first available only to the wives and daughters of the ruling Obrenović dynasty and high-ranking foreign officials, gradually spread to the upper and middle class. In the salon atmosphere, women had the opportunity to show their knowledge and skills: playing an instrument (mostly the piano), conversation in foreign languages, dance skills, or knowledge of literature and poetry. However, this ‘decorative form of education’,Footnote 83 was accompanied by the active participation of women in conversations on women's rights in society and by their participation in discussions about the national and international press and political scene, as well as by their advocacy of innovations in the life of the capital.
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