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Affirming and advancing international standards for meeting mental health and psychosocial needs: Resolution 2 of the 33rd International Conference

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 July 2026

Dick Clomén Open the ORCID record for Dick Clomén [Opens in a new window]
Dick Clomén*
Affiliation:
Regional Head of Humanitarian Diplomacy, Liaison and Communications for Europe, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Budapest, Hungary
*
Email: dick.clomen@ifrc.org
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Abstract

In 2019, the 33rd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent adopted the landmark Resolution 2 on “Addressing the Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies”. By examining Resolution 2’s origin and the time and context in which it was adopted, and by analyzing its normative influence on subsequent international instruments adopted by States, this article explores how Resolution 2 has contributed to advancing and establishing norms and standards for responding to the mental health and psychosocial needs of people affected by armed conflicts and other emergencies.

Keywords

mental healthMHPSSInternational Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescentarmed conflict

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Research Article
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International Review of the Red Cross , First View , pp. 1 - 19
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© The Author(s), 2026. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of International Committee of the Red Cross.

Introduction

The 33rd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (International Conference), held in December 2019, marked the first time that States Parties to the Geneva Conventions and the components of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (the Movement)Footnote 1 had convened to debate and agree upon a comprehensive and coordinated response to mental health as a challenge of growing global concern. Subsequently, the Conference adopted the landmark Resolution 2 on “Addressing the Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies”.Footnote 2

The psychological impact and mental health consequences for people affected by armed conflict and other emergencies had been recognized in the deliberations and decisions of the International Conference throughout its history, but often tacitly through calls to end human suffering, protect dignity or promote health. Even where mental health may not be explicitly mentioned, it is evident that it has been considered a part of the general humanitarian rationale, including in the cases of the missing and the dead and their families,Footnote 3 reunification of dispersed familiesFootnote 4 and the prohibition against torture and other forms of ill-treatment.Footnote 5 More often, the International Conference has called for psychological or psychosocial assistance, recovery or rehabilitation, such as for the victims/survivors of tortureFootnote 6 and sexual violence,Footnote 7 children affected by armed conflict,Footnote 8 and persons with disabilities.Footnote 9 Similar calls by the components of the Movement can be found in the Movement’s strategies and plans addressing the humanitarian consequences of the use of certain weapons.Footnote 10 Restoring Family Links is a particular area of work where mental health and psychosocial well-being are at the centre;Footnote 11 more recently, increasing attention has been given to the importance of addressing the well-being of staff and volunteers responding to humanitarian needs.Footnote 12

Resolution 2 explicitly recognized mental health and psychosocial needs as a core humanitarian concern and offered comprehensive measures to address these needs as a central component in humanitarian response. Following the 33rd International Conference, the mental health and psychosocial needs of emergency-affected populations have been addressed in several instruments adopted by States, as demonstrated below. This article seeks to unpack Resolution 2, examining its origins and the context in which it was adopted, and to assess its normative influence on these subsequent international instruments.

Towards a resolution at the 33rd International Conference

Resolution 2 was developed against the backdrop of growing global momentum on mental health as well as a series of initiatives undertaken within the Movement. In turn, the Movement and the 33rd International Conference contributed to this global momentum by advancing efforts to address the unmet mental health and psychosocial needs of people affected by armed conflict and other emergencies.

Building a global momentum for mental health

Increased recognition of and attention to the mental health and psychosocial well-being of people affected by emergencies had been building up gradually, driven by actors such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and a network of international organizations, civil society organizations, academia, the Movement, and certain States that considered this a policy priority. Important normative groundwork had been laid through the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) Reference Group on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings.Footnote 13 The 2007 IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings (IASC MHPSS Guidelines)Footnote 14 set definitions and sought to standardize approaches across the humanitarian sector, and have been widely accepted, implemented and institutionalized by humanitarian organizations.Footnote 15 WHO’s Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030 has also played a critical role in advancing global mental health.Footnote 16 Another important development within the humanitarian sector was the full integration, in 2018, of mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) into the Sphere Standards, which establish minimum standards for humanitarian response.Footnote 17 Many initiatives have been technically focused, aimed at aligning approaches and ensuring and enhancing quality, and MHPSS has often remained confined to technical discussion amongst experts and practitioners. MHPSS services for emergency-affected populations have frequently faced funding challenges and have usually not been considered a priority in crisis situations.Footnote 18

Politically, the Global Ministerial Mental Health Summit in London on 9 and 10 October 2018, convened by UK government in partnership with WHO and supported by the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), and the subsequent adoption of the Global Declaration on Achieving Equality for Mental Health in the 21st Century, marked a pivotal moment in building a new momentum for global mental health.Footnote 19 The 2018 Global Summit, which gathered more than 580 representatives from forty-seven States, including experts, civil society organizations, academia and international organizations, some with lived experience, was the first of its kind and has been followed by a series of annual high-level ministerial mental health summits. On the occasion of the Global Summit, on 10 October 2018, the Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development launched its report, proposing an expansion of the global mental health agenda and a focus on reducing the treatment gap in order to improve the mental health of whole populations and reducing the global burden of mental health conditions by addressing gaps in prevention and quality of care. The report was presented as a “blueprint for action to promote mental wellbeing, prevent mental health problems, and enable recovery from mental disorders”.Footnote 20

A year later, on 7 and 8 October 2019, the government of the Netherlands hosted the second Global Ministerial Mental Health Summit, giving full attention to humanitarian settings – as evidenced by the Summit’s title, the International Conference on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Crisis Situations. In the final declaration of the Amsterdam conference, the high-level participants from governments, international organizations and the Movement noted the immense toll that armed conflicts, natural disasters and other emergencies take on people’s mental health and psychosocial well-being and agreed to seek opportunities to further scale up MHPSS in humanitarian responses.Footnote 21 The Netherlands government has sustained a key role in championing MHPSS in international affairs, and became a critical partner for the success of the 33rd International Conference in Geneva in December 2019.Footnote 22 Another development in 2019 was the adoption of WHO’s Special Initiative for Mental Health (2019–2023): Universal Health Coverage for Mental Health.Footnote 23 By advancing policies, advocacy and human rights, and scaling up quality interventions and services for people with mental health conditions, this initiative aimed to increase treatment coverage for 100 million people in twelve countries, one of them being Ukraine.Footnote 24 At the IASC’s December meeting in 2019, the IASC principals endorsed a set of recommendations on MHPSS for humanitarian contexts, including on MHPSS as a cross-cutting issue for response in all emergencies.Footnote 25

This does not constitute a full account of initiatives that helped shape the global agenda for mental health; a range of local, national, regional and international efforts by civil society organizations also contributed by providing evidence and foregrounding the voices of people with lived experience.Footnote 26

Mobilization within the Movement

Within the Movement itself, the journey towards an International Conference resolution originated from growing concerns and evidence related to the consequences of unmet mental health and psychosocial needs amongst people affected by armed conflicts and other emergencies, and the lack of comprehensive and coherent response strategies. In June 2015, a first Movement consultation on the psychological effects of armed conflicts and violence was held in Stockholm, gathering representatives of fourteen National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (National Societies), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), along with experts external to the Movement. This meeting called for a scaling up of advocacy efforts to prioritize MHPSS as a central part of humanitarian interventions.Footnote 27

At the 32nd International Conference in December 2015, a side event entitled “The Psychological Effects of Armed Conflicts and Violence – A Great Human Cost” was organized, focusing on the voices of people with lived experience from contemporary armed conflicts. Several National Societies signed pledges at the 32nd International Conference, committing to mobilizing greater global attention to the psychological effects of armed conflicts and violence and gaining further recognition of their humanitarian impact.Footnote 28

When the Movement met again at the 2017 Council of Delegates of the Movement (Council of Delegates) in Antalya, MHPSS was one of the key themes of the meeting.Footnote 29 The Movement decided to develop a common policy on mental health and psychosocial needs and to “consider including the issue in the 33rd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent”.Footnote 30

The period leading up to the 33rd International Conference in 2019 was marked by a continued high number of armed conflicts, many of them with a downward spiral of violence and serious violations of international humanitarian law (IHL), leading to increasing numbers of displaced peopleFootnote 31 and concerns related to the protection of people with disabilities, often in increasingly protracted conflict situations.Footnote 32 The urgency of addressing mental health and psychosocial needs became increasingly evident.

Adoption of a Movement policy on mental health and psychosocial needs by the Council of Delegates

On 8 December 2019, the day before the 33rd International Conference, the Council of Delegates adopted the first Movement policy on addressing mental health and psychosocial needs, building on common approaches of National Societies, the IFRC and the ICRC. The aim was to harmonize responses and to strengthen the Movement’s collective capacity and capability to address mental health and psychosocial needs.Footnote 33 The policy supports the components of the Movement in ensuring the quality of MHPSS responses and defines a common mental health and psychosocial response and approach framework. The resolution adopting the policy includes a strong call to the components of the Movement to increase their allocation of resources and to

guarantee the “basic level” of psychosocial support response as contained within the Movement’s mental health and psychosocial support framework; develop their capacity to provide services at other levels of the framework; and assess, refer and advocate in relation to the full spectrum of mental health and psychosocial support within the framework.Footnote 34

While a special emphasis is kept on the delivery of basic psychosocial support services, the policy suggests a holistic approach to addressing mental health needs. This was an important development for the Movement’s way of working – a recognition of the continuum of care from basic psychosocial support through to specialized services. The work to develop the Movement policy was closely coordinated with the development of the International Conference resolution, to ensure coherence and synergies between the two processes.Footnote 35

Resolution 2 of the 33rd International Conference and its normative impact

Resolution 2 was a historic moment for the Movement: the first comprehensive global decision by States focusing on the mental health and psychosocial consequences of armed conflict and other emergencies. It was informed by the extensive experience, operational practice and evidence of National Societies and the ICRC, the global expertise of the IFRC’s Reference Centre for Psychosocial Support,Footnote 36 and the experience and expertise of governments and external stakeholders. The following sections provide an overview of Resolution 2 and examine its normative influence on subsequent international instruments and policy developments.

A shared narrative on the impact of armed conflict and other emergencies on mental health and psychosocial well-being

A central objective of Resolution 2 was to ensure a strong and inclusive narrative – a shared problem statement which defines the needs and gaps that must be addressed. This involved several different elements:

  • • First, stressing the urgency of the situation and affirming that armed conflicts and other emergencies dramatically increase mental health and psychosocial needs.Footnote 37

  • • Second, recognizing MHPSS as a critical and life-saving element of humanitarian response, as well as its essential role in recovery, daily functioning, the enjoyment of human rights, and access to protection and assistance for people affected by armed conflicts and other emergencies.Footnote 38

  • • Third, acknowledging the complex, far-reaching and often enduring impact of unmet mental health and psychosocial needs on individuals, communities and entire societies.Footnote 39

  • • Fourth, recognizing that most people do not develop mental health conditions when they have access to basic humanitarian services, social networks, coping strategies and community resources.Footnote 40

The narrative developed in Resolution 2 was later reaffirmed and further developed by the member States of WHO in the resolution “Strengthening Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Before, During, and After Armed Conflicts, Natural and Human-Caused Disasters, and Health and Other Emergencies”, adopted at the 77th World Health Assembly (WHA) in 2024. This resolution references Resolution 2 and aligns with its language in defining the challenges at hand.Footnote 41 Clearly informed by the lessons learned from subsequent emergencies such as the global COVID-19 pandemic,Footnote 42 and by contemporary armed conflicts,Footnote 43 the WHO resolution further expanded the narrative of Resolution 2.

Affirming the relevance of IHL and other international legal norms

As the theme developed during the period between the 32nd and 33rd International Conferences, the relevance of IHL in addressing mental health concerns was repeatedly raised – but the question was to what extent it would be possible to propose a concrete call for action related to IHL and mental health. Based on the comments received on the early drafts of Resolution 2, it was evident that States were reluctant to include language implying the development, clarification or interpretation of international legal norms on mental health under IHL and other relevant branches of international law.Footnote 44 For the components of the Movement, on the other hand, it was pertinent to affirm the important role of international law, and IHL in particular, in preventing and mitigating harm to people’s mental health. The Movement’s extensive experience had shown that respect for IHL significantly reduces the risk of mental health suffering in the context of armed conflict, and that disrespect for IHL often increases the risk of mental health challenges, sometimes lifelong ones.Footnote 45 The inclusion of a preambular paragraph referencing relevant international law was never questioned as such, but the paragraph, as adopted, was carefully considered and drafted by key States and the components of the Movement:Footnote 46

affirming that the existing international legal frameworks, including international humanitarian law and international human rights law, as applicable, provide for protections that may be relevant to mental health and psychosocial well-being, and recognizing that respect for those protections may significantly contribute to addressing the challenges in preventing and meeting mental health and psychosocial needs, …Footnote 47

Measuring Resolution 2’s effectiveness in terms of protection for mental health under international law may be difficult, but it currently remains the only resolution specifically focused on mental health needs adopted by States that includes an explicit reference to IHL.Footnote 48

Early and sustained response: A call for a changed operational approach

The first operative paragraph of Resolution 2 calls on States and the components of the Movement to “increase efforts to ensure early and sustained access to mental health and psychosocial support services”.Footnote 49 This call for a changed operational approach was a direct response to one of the major gaps that the Movement sought to address – namely, the persistent tendency to overlook MHPSS as an essential component of early humanitarian action in armed conflicts and other emergencies. Evidence showed that early detection, intervention and care can promote mental health and psychosocial well-being and can prevent distress from escalating into more severe conditions.Footnote 50 This shift in mindset was also pushed forward by explicitly recognizing mental health and psychosocial well-being as critical to the “survival, recovery and daily functioning of people affected”.Footnote 51 WHO reiterated that “mental and psychosocial well-being are critical to the survival, recovery and daily functioning of people affected by armed conflicts, natural and human-caused disasters and health and other emergencies” in its resolution from 2024.Footnote 52 However, explicit language calling for the early provision of MHPSS services cannot be found in the other subsequent instruments analyzed in this article.

Investing in local and community-based action

In armed conflicts, disasters and other emergencies, local actors and affected communities play vital roles in meeting humanitarian needs, not only in the immediate acute phase but throughout the crisis and into recovery.Footnote 53 To reinforce this critical role of communities and local responders in relation to mental health and psychosocial needs, Resolution 2 calls for greater investments in “local and community-based action, embedded in local and national services, and to strengthen local and community resilience and the capacities of volunteers”.Footnote 54 To this end, it encourages enhanced cooperation between States and National Societies, recognizing that the latter often have unique humanitarian access, with staff and volunteers drawn from the communities they serve, and acknowledging their distinct auxiliary role to their public authorities in the humanitarian field.Footnote 55

The call to increase investment in local and community-based action, embedded in local and national services on a longer-term basis, and to reinforce community efforts in armed conflicts and emergencies, was later echoed by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in its 2023 resolution “Mental Health and Psychosocial Support”,Footnote 56 and by the WHA in its aforementioned 2024 resolution.Footnote 57 The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)Footnote 58 and the UN Human Rights CouncilFootnote 59 made similar commitments and calls to promote community-based approaches in addressing mental health; in its resolution “Rights of the Child: Realizing the Rights of the Child Affected by Armed Conflict”, adopted in March 2026, the Human Rights Council encouraged States to ensure “predictable and sustainable funding for child protection programmes, including quality, sustained and community-based mental health and psychosocial support programmes, [and] safe and child-sensitive counselling”.Footnote 60 Since the 33rd International Conference, investment in community-based action as a core element of responses to mental health and psychosocial needs in armed conflict and other emergencies has become a coherent policy norm.

Comprehensive and integrated responses to mental health and psychological needs

Resolution 2 affirmed the emerging standard across the MHPSS sector that effective response requires a holistic approach and a continuum of care for those affected. It built on existing standards including the IASC MHPSS GuidelinesFootnote 61 and the Sphere Standards,Footnote 62 further developed in the Movement’s policy on mental health and psychosocial needs.Footnote 63 The resolution was identified as an opportunity to further bridge long-standing gaps in the often fragmented approaches to the provision of care and support. Responses were either heavily focused on specialized mental health care, including psychiatric care, or towards basic psychosocial support, with limited integration between the two. By promoting a holistic approach, Resolution 2 acknowledges the diverse and evolving needs of affected people, and that different measures and levels of support may be required over time.Footnote 64 It asks States and the components of the Movement to “ensure that mental health and psychosocial responses include psychosocial, psychological and specialized mental health care”.Footnote 65 This was reinforced in 2023 by the UN General Assembly, which called for the development of comprehensive MHPSS services, and of holistic services that consider all aspects of a person’s life.Footnote 66 Similarly, the 77th WHA urged member States to “ensure that mental health and psychosocial support responses include a range of complementary services”.Footnote 67

Another aspect of comprehensive response highlighted in Resolution 2 is the call for integration of MHPSS into all activities that address humanitarian needs, including prevention and protection measures.Footnote 68 The resolution further calls for MHPSS to be coordinated with other humanitarian services, such as shelter, food, livelihood programmes, education, and support for separated families and families of the missing, so that these efforts reinforce one another.Footnote 69 This integrated approach to the response to mental health and psychosocial needs is also found in the subsequent instruments adopted by the UNHCR Executive Committee in 2022,Footnote 70 the UN General Assembly in 2023Footnote 71 and the WHA in 2024.Footnote 72

Mental health and psychosocial support in systems for preparedness, response and recovery

The inclusion of MHPSS in domestic and international emergency response systems, including disaster laws, preparedness plans and emergency response coordination mechanisms, is a central shift put forward in Resolution 2. This refers not just to health and social welfare systems but to the entire mechanisms for humanitarian preparedness, response and recovery.Footnote 73 Inclusion of MHPSS in preparedness, response and recovery was reiterated by the UNHCR in 2022,Footnote 74 the UN General Assembly in 2023Footnote 75 and the WHA resolution of 2024, which reflects the language of Resolution 2.Footnote 76 WHO’s Special Initiative on Mental Health (2019–2023) has included an indicator on this to assess progress under its second strategic action, which focuses on scaling up community-based interventions and services.Footnote 77 In a 2024 WHO survey, 65% of countries that responded reported having a system in place for emergency preparedness and/or disaster risk management that includes MHPSS. This represents an increase of 20% from the previous survey in 2020, when the figure stood at 45%.Footnote 78 In a global survey by the Movement in 2023, 65% of responding National Societies reported that their role in MHPSS is recognized in national public health or disaster management plans, compared with 45% in 2021,Footnote 79 and 68% responded that they are included in relevant humanitarian inter-agency mechanisms for MHPSS.Footnote 80 Altogether, this indicates that the inclusion of MHPSS in systems for preparedness, response and recovery has evolved into a benchmark for humanitarian response following the adoption of Resolution 2.

Critical barriers: Stigma, exclusion and discrimination

Stigma, exclusion and discrimination have long been recognized as critical barriers to ensuring good mental health and psychosocial well-being.Footnote 81 In contexts of armed conflict and other emergencies, when mental health and psychosocial needs grow significantly, such patterns are often exacerbated, increasing the risks to and vulnerabilities of affected people, particularly those with pre-existing mental health conditions.Footnote 82 Resolution 2 calls on States and the Movement to “take action to address stigma, exclusion and discrimination related to mental health and psychosocial needs through approaches that respect the dignity and reinforce the participation of affected people, in particular persons with lived experiences, in a context-specific, culturally and faith-sensitive way”.Footnote 83 Almost exactly the same language has been reflected by WHO in the 2024 WHA resolution,Footnote 84 and similar calls for action are central to other instruments on mental health and well-being adopted by the UN organizations.Footnote 85 The systematic inclusion of recommendations and actions addressing stigma, exclusion and discrimination in international instruments adopted by States across sectors and actors shows that this has become a standard for effective response to mental health and psychosocial needs in all contexts.

Critical barriers: Quality and capacity of the workforce

The profound global shortage of skilled mental health and social care human resources is recognized as a major threat to people’s access to MHPSS. At the time of the adoption of Resolution 2, the disparities between countries were stark: low-income countries had fewer than two mental health workers per 100,000 people, while in high-income countries the figure was seventy-two per 100,000. Such gaps become even more acute in situations of armed conflict, natural disasters and other emergencies, where needs escalate rapidly and health systems are frequently overstretched.Footnote 86 To address this, Resolution 2 called on States to work to strengthen the quality and capacity of the workforce – including volunteers – responding to the mental health and psychosocial needs of people affected by armed conflicts, natural disasters and other emergencies, in close coordination and cooperation with the components of the Movement.Footnote 87 The workforce gap has repeatedly been highlighted by the global mental health community and remains a critical barrier, particularly in the most fragile contexts.Footnote 88

Well-being of staff and volunteers responding to humanitarian needs

Awareness of the mental health and psychosocial well-being of staff and volunteers has grown considerably since 2015. Resolution 2 made an important contribution in establishing a norm for what has become an emerging practice: addressing the needs of those who respond to the needs of others. It recognizes the dual impact often faced by local staff and volunteers who, while supporting affected populations under challenging conditions, are themselves part of the communities experiencing the crisis.Footnote 89 Investing in their well-being is essential for sustainable, locally led humanitarian action and for strengthening resilience.Footnote 90 The relevant paragraph of Resolution 2 was intentionally drafted to include not only those traditionally viewed as “humanitarian responders” but all categories of personnel engaged in meeting the humanitarian needs of people affected by armed conflict and other emergencies; this may encompass the police, armed forces and others whose roles place them on the front lines of crises.Footnote 91 A corresponding paragraph emphasizing the well-being of staff and volunteers responding to the effects of epidemics and pandemics was included in Resolution 3 of the 33rd International Conference, entitled “Time to Act: Tackling Epidemics and Pandemics Together”.Footnote 92 The first cases of COVID-19 were reported by WHO only a few weeks after the 33rd International Conference concluded in December 2019, and the world soon faced a global pandemic with far-reaching and devastating consequences.Footnote 93 In terms of evidence and recognition of the importance of addressing the mental health needs of populations affected by emergencies, including the workforce, COVID-19 became a critical catalyst.Footnote 94

Since the adoption of Resolution 2, promotion and protection of the mental health and psychosocial well-being of staff and volunteers has been included as a general rule in resolutions adopted by international organizations.Footnote 95 While the UN General Assembly has recognized the impacts of conflict and other emergencies on humanitarian personnel and volunteers,Footnote 96 the WHA has included comprehensive measures to protect and promote the mental health and psychosocial well-being of “the humanitarian, health and care workforce, including volunteers”.Footnote 97

The UN Security Council adopted a resolution on the mental health and well-being of UN peace operations personnel in 2022.Footnote 98 This followed a global UN staff mental health survey in 2017, which revealed a deeply concerning situation and led to the adoption of the UN System Mental Health and Well-Being Strategy (2018–2023).Footnote 99 The Security Council resolution was the first of its kind to acknowledge the negative mental health impact of misinformation and disinformation campaigns.Footnote 100 In 2024, the Security Council again expressed concern over the impact of misinformation on humanitarian and UN personnel in its Resolution 2730.Footnote 101 The same year, the Movement appealed to States to prevent, stop and remedy misinformation, disinformation and dehumanizing rhetoric that harms the psychological well-being of people in vulnerable situations and the humanitarian workers supporting them.Footnote 102 The safety and well-being of humanitarian personnel continues to be a major concern in contemporary armed conflicts, and Movement, UN and State initiatives have continued to identify the need to address the safety and well-being of humanitarian personnel in contemporary armed conflicts since 2009,Footnote 103 including through UN Security Council Resolution 2730Footnote 104 and the Declaration for the Protection of Humanitarian Personnel initiated by the Australian government.Footnote 105

Conclusions

By consolidating existing and emerging practices and contributing to the evolution of new standards, Resolution 2 of the 33rd International Conference has played a significant normative role in shaping the narrative, substance and language of subsequent international instruments adopted by States addressing the mental health and psychosocial well-being of people affected by armed conflict. Adopted at a time when mental health was gaining increased political traction globally, the resolution made an important contribution to building and sustaining that momentum. Within this broader context, it helped transform the response to mental health and psychosocial needs from a fragmented, technical and often secondary humanitarian concern into a recognized and essential component for humanitarian action.

The ultimate measure of Resolution 2’s normative impact, however, lies in the extent to which these standards have been effectively implemented and applied by States and by components of the Movement. To support the implementation of Resolution 2, the Movement has developed a dedicated roadmap for the years 2020 to 2023.Footnote 106 This roadmap, which defines priority action areas and cross-cutting enablers, has helped to progress the Movement’s work on addressing the mental health needs of people affected by armed conflicts, natural disasters and other emergencies globally.Footnote 107 By 2023, more National Societies than ever before were reported to be providing MHPSS in emergencies.Footnote 108 Increasing numbers of staff and volunteers had been trained, and more National Societies had allocated dedicated budgets for these services.Footnote 109 At the same time, gaps in funding and technical expertise continued to be identified as major obstacles to service implementation.Footnote 110

In the context of the humanitarian response to the international armed conflict between the Russian Federation and Ukraine, the author has observed that emergencies often act as catalysts for the rapid development of more robust MHPSS services. Following the escalation of the conflict in February 2022 and the corresponding surge in needs,Footnote 111 the Ukrainian Red Cross Society substantially expanded its MHPSS services;Footnote 112 the Russian Red Cross similarly scaled up its services to respond to increased demand.Footnote 113 MHPSS was identified as a priority area in the IFRC emergency appeal for Ukraine and impacted countries,Footnote 114 and in May 2022 the IFRC and the European Commission agreed on funding to expand support for displaced people arriving in neighbouring EU countries.Footnote 115 By 2024, National Societies in twenty-nine countries, including Ukraine and Russia, were engaged in what became the largest IFRC-coordinated response to mental health and psychosocial needs to date.Footnote 116 The evolution of these services since February 2022 represents a significant advancement in the Movement’s response, in line with Resolution 2. This has included a rapid scale-up of services, increased allocation of financial resources, and a shift towards more holistic and integrated approaches. Particular emphasis has been placed on strengthening skills and capacities, particularly with regard to community-based and local action, and on investing in the well-being of responders.Footnote 117

While the 33rd International Conference made an important contribution in advancing the normative standards for more effective response to mental health and psychosocial needs in armed conflict, progress made in other multilateral fora has also been critical in sustaining the necessary development and political attention. The long-term sustainability of services will largely depend on the extent to which mental health is recognized as a political priority and supported by adequate funding. In the current global context, characterized by high levels of humanitarian need, significant policy shifts and declining funding from key actors,Footnote 118 there is a substantial risk that available resources will fall short of meeting growing demand. To mitigate this risk, collaborative and complementary efforts among multiple stakeholders will be essential to maintain political momentum and to translate normative standards into effective and sustainable responses to the mental health and psychosocial needs of people affected by armed conflicts and other emergencies.

Footnotes

*

The author managed the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement project on mental health and psychosocial consequences of armed conflicts, natural disasters and other emergencies between 2018 and 2020. He led the efforts of the Movement to mobilize global attention and advance collective action, and acted as the penholder of Resolution 2 of the 33rd International Conference. The author is grateful to Sarah Harrison, Milena Osorio Montealegre and Corrie Butler for their comments on earlier drafts of this article, as well as to the editors for their generous support during the review process. The analysis and conclusions contained in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the IFRC or other Movement components involved in the initiative.

The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.

References

1 In 2019, the Movement consisted of 192 recognized National Societies, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC).

2 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, “Addressing the Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of Individuals Affected by Armed Conflict, Natural Disasters, and Other Emergencies”, Geneva, 2019, published in International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 101, No. 911, 2019, pp. 842–845.

3 22nd International Conference, Res. V, Tehran, 1973, paras 1, 3; 24th International Conference, Res. II, Manila, 1981, preambular para. 2; 25th International Conference, Res. XIII, Geneva, 1986, preambular para. 2 and para. 3; 28th International Conference, Res. 1, “Agenda for Humanitarian Action”, Geneva, 2003, Final Goal 1.4 (“Manage human remains and information on the dead”).

4 19th International Conference, Res. XX, New Delhi, 1957, preambular para. 1; 20th International Conference, Res. IX, Vienna, 1965, para. 4: 30th International, Res. 1, Geneva 2007, and Declaration “Together for Humanity”, para. 10.

5 21st International Conference, Res. XI, “Protection of Prisoners of War”, Istanbul, 1969, paras 3–4; 23rd International Conference, Res. XIV, “Torture”, Manila, 1981; 25th International Conference, Res. X, “Torture”, Geneva, 1986, preambular paras 1–3; 30th International Conference, Res. 3, “Reaffirmation and Implementation of International Humanitarian Law: Preserving Human Life and Dignity in Armed Conflict”, Geneva, 2007, para. 6.

6 24th International Conference, Res. XV, “Assistance to Victims of Torture”, Manila, 1981, para. 1; 25th International Conference, Res. XI, “Assistance of Victims of Torture”, paras 1–3, and Res. XII, “Assistance to Victims of Torture”, paras 1–2, Geneva, 1986.

7 26th International Conference, Res. 2, Geneva, 1995, para. B(e); 32nd International Conference, Res. 3, “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: Joint Action on Prevention and Response”, Geneva, 2015, para. 20.

8 25th International Conference, Res. IX, “Protection of Children in Armed Conflicts”, Geneva, 1986, para. 6; 26th International Conference, Res. 2, Geneva, 1995, para. C(g); 27th International Conference, Res. 1, “Adoption of the Declaration and the Plan of Action: 27th International Conference Plan of Action for the Years 2000–2003”, Geneva, 1999, Final Goal 1.1, para. 7; 31st International Conference, Res. 2, Geneva, 2011, Annex 1, “Action Plan for Implementing International Humanitarian Law”, Objective 2.1(d).

9 25th International Conference, Res. XXVIII, “The Movement and the United Nations Decade for Disabled People”, Geneva, 1986, para. 1; 31st International Conference, Res. 2, Geneva, 2011, Annex 1, “Action Plan for Implementing International Humanitarian Law”, Objective 2.3, para. 2.

10 2009 Council of Delegates, Res. 6, “Movement Strategy on Landmines, Cluster Munitions and Other Explosive Remnants of War: Reducing the Effects of Weapons on Civilians”, Nairobi, 2009, § 2.3, “Providing Assistance for Victims”.

11 25th International Conference, Res. XV, “Co-operation between National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and Governments in the Reuniting of Dispersed Families”, Geneva, 1986; 26th International Conference, Res. 2, Geneva, 1995, para. D(m); 2007 Council of Delegates, Res. 4, “Restoring Family Links Strategy (and Implementation Plan) for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (2008–2018)”, Geneva, 2007; 2019 Council of Delegates, Res. 6, “Restoring Family Links: Strategy for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2020–2025”, Geneva, 2019.

12 32nd International Conference, Res. 5, “The Safety and Security of Humanitarian Volunteers”, Geneva, 2015. Also note 2011 Council of Delegates, Res. 7, “National Societies Preparing for and Responding to Armed Conflict and Other Situations of Violence”, Nairobi, 2011, which references the need to compensate staff for possible injury, including psychological trauma/stress.

13 IASC, “IASC Reference Group on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings”, available at: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/iasc-reference-group-on-mental-health-and-psychosocial-support-in-emergency-settings (all internet references were accessed in June 2026).

14 IASC, Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergency Settings, 2007 (IASC MHPSS Guidelines).

15 See IASC, above note 13.

16 World Health Assembly (WHA) Res. 65.4, 2012, updated in Decision WHA 74(14). WHO’s Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030 sets out key objectives for its member States and defines guiding principles for collaboration to advance global mental health: see WHO, Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030, 2021, available at: www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031029.

17 Sphere Association, The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, 4th ed., Geneva, 2018, pp. 339–342. More information on the Sphere Standards is available at: https://spherestandards.org/.

18 See e.g. Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Mind the Mind Now”, Declaration of International Conference on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Crisis Situations, Amsterdam, 8 October 2019, available at: https://rcrcconference.org/app/uploads/2019/12/mindthemindnow_Declaration-DEF.pdf.

19 UK Department of Health and Social Care, 2018 Global Ministerial Mental Health Summit Report and Declaration on Achieving Equality for Mental Health in the 21st Century, 19 July 2019.

20 Vikram Patel et al., “The Lancet Commission on Global Mental Health and Sustainable Development”, The Lancet, Vol. 392, No. 10157, 2018. The Lancet Commission report includes a comprehensive overview of the history and milestones of global mental health, including mental health as an integral element of the Sustainable Development Goals, WHO’s Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan, mental health as a global development issue in the World Bank and WHO-hosted 2016 summit, and mental health in the agenda of WHO’s High Level Commission on Non-Communicable Diseases (pp. 1554–1561).

21 See Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, above note 18. Annexed recommendations were developed by technical working groups.

22 For a comprehensive account of the Netherlands’ international engagement on mental health and psychosocial needs, see Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Report on 33rd IC Resolution 2: Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies, 1 July 2024, p. 3, available at: https://rcrcconference.org/res-report-33rd/report-on-33rd-ic-resolution-2-addressing-mental-health-and-psychosocial-needs-of-people-affected-by-armed-conflicts-natural-disasters-and-other-emergencies-33ic-19-r2-netherlands-ministry-of/. Since 2019, the Netherlands has worked systematically for the inclusion of MHPSS in various multilateral decisions. Together with Ukraine, the Netherlands initiated WHA Res. 77.3, “Strengthening Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Before, During and After Armed Conflicts, Natural and Human-Caused Disasters, and Health and Other Emergencies”, 1 June 2024.

23 WHO, The WHO Special Initiative for Mental Health (2019–2023): Universal Health Coverage for Mental Health, May 2019, available at: www.who.int/publications/i/item/special-initiative-for-mental-health-(2019-2023).

24 WHO, “Ukraine: WHO Special Initiative for Mental Health”, available at: www.who.int/initiatives/who-special-initiative-for-mental-health/ukraine. Note also the WHO Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2035 adopted in WHA Res. 65.4, 2012.

25 IASC, “Joint Interagency Call for Action on MHPSS 2020”, Geneva, 9 December 2020, Annex.

26 See e.g. the websites of United for Global Mental Health, available at: https://unitedgmh.org; the MHPSS Collaborative, available at: https://mhpsscollaborative.org; MHPSS.net, available at: www.mhpss.net; and CBM Global Disability Inclusion, available at: https://cbm-global.org/.

27 International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Consultations on the Psychological Effects of Armed Conflicts and Violence, Stockholm, Sweden, 24–25 June 2015, referenced in 2017 Council of Delegates, Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs: Background Report, Geneva, September 2017.

28 32nd International Conference, Report of the 32nd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Geneva, 2015, p. 191.

29 2017 Council of Delegates, above note 27.

30 2017 Council of Delegates, Res. 7, “Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs”, Antalya, 10–11 November 2017.

31 ICRC, International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts, 32IC/15/1, Geneva, 2015, pp. 5 ff.

32 ICRC, International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts, Geneva, 2019, pp. 10 ff.

33 2019 Council of Delegates, Res. 5, “International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Policy on Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs”, Geneva 2019, available at: https://pscentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/CD19-R5-Adopted-MHPSS-need-policy-draft-resolution-FINAL-EN_clean.pdf.

34 Ibid., para. 2.

35 In 2018, the ICRC, IFRC and National Societies initiated the Red Cross Red Crescent Movement Project on Mental Health and Psychosocial Consequences of Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and other Emergencies (MOMENT Project), with the aim of coordinating and preparing the work towards the 2019 Council of Delegates and the 33rd International Conference, and to advocate for stronger global engagement. As project manager of the MOMENT Project and penholder of Resolution 2, the author of the present article followed this file closely between 1 October 2018 and 31 December 2020.

36 Known since 1 January 2025 as the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Hub.

37 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, preambular para. 1; 33rd International Conference, Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies: Background Document, Geneva, 2019, p. 2; Fiona Charlson et al., “New WHO Prevalence Estimates of Mental Disorders in Conflict Settings: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”, The Lancet, Vol. 394, No. 10194, 2019.

38 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, preambular para. 2.

39 Ibid., preambular para. 5.

40 Ibid., preambular para. 4.

41 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, notably preambular paras 5, 13–14, 16.

42 Ibid., paras 8, 23.

43 Ibid., para. 19, which references the mental health and psychosocial well-being of former combatants, children associated with armed conflict and prisoners of war.

44 The author was the penholder of the resolution and was directly involved in the consultations with members of the International Conference.

45 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, preambular para. 11.

46 See above note 44.

47 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, preambular para. 11.

48 See e.g. HRC Res. 52/12, “Mental Health and Human Rights”, April 2023, which while explicitly welcoming Resolution 2, focuses solely on human rights. HRC Res. 61/L.27, “Rights of the Child: Realizing the Rights of the Child Affected by Armed Conflict”, 30 March 2026, does not treat mental health as a distinct or primary thematic focus, but it consistently acknowledges the psychological harm caused by armed conflict to children and the need for appropriate responses (see preambular paras 14, 22, 26, 34–36, as well as op. paras 3, 7, 8, 10, 18, 20, 22). Throughout its text, the resolution references applicable IHL, under which the rights of victims/survivors are widely understood to encompass access to MHPSS as part of broader rehabilitation, recovery and assistance measures (see operative paras 3, 7, 8, 10, 20, 22).

49 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, op. para. 1 (emphasis added).

50 33rd International Conference, Background Document, above note 37, p. 3.

51 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, op. para. 1.

52 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, preambular para. 13.

53 See e.g. IASC MHPSS Guidelines, above note 14, pp. 93–110.

54 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, op. para. 2.

55 Ibid., op. para. 3.

56 UNGA Res. 77/300, 26 June 2023, op. paras 4, 9, 20.

57 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, op. para. 3.

58 UNHCR Executive Committee, Conclusion No. 116 (LXXIII) on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support, Geneva, October 2022, para. (m).

59 HRC Res. 52/12, above note 48, para. 6.

60 HRC Res. 61/L.27, above note 48, para. 22. The resolution further called for the implementation of community-based demobilization, rehabilitation, physical and psychological recovery, and social reintegration programmes, including sustained MHPSS, for children formerly associated with armed forces and armed groups (para. 8).

61 IASC MHPSS Guidelines, above note 14; V. Patel et al., above note 20, p. 1584.

62 Sphere Association, above note 17, pp. 339–342.

63 2019 Council of Delegates, Res. 5, above note 33.

64 33rd International Conference, Background Document, above note 37, pp. 3–4.

65 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, op. para. 4. See also preambular para. 1, “underscoring the urgent demand to increase efforts to respond … by means of prevention, promotion, protection and assistance”.

66 UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, paras 4, 9, 15–16.

67 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, para. 4.

68 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, para. 5.

69 Ibid.

70 UNHCR Executive Committee, above note 58, para. (e).

71 UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, para. 4. This resolution focuses on “local and community-based action, embedded in local and national services”, including “comprehensive and integrated mental health and psychosocial support services”.

72 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, op. paras 4–5.

73 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, para. 6.

74 UNHCR Executive Committee, above note 58, para. (a).

75 UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, op. para. 2.

76 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, op. para. 6.

77 WHO, above note 23.

78 WHO, Mental Health Atlas 2024, Geneva, 2025, p. 55.

79 ICRC and IFRC, Mental Health Matters: Progress Report on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Activities within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, October 2023, p. 32, available at: https://mhpsshub.org/resource/progress-report-on-mental-health-and-psychosocial-support-activities-within-the-international-red-cross-and-red-crescent-movement/. 146 National Societies (82%) responded to the 2023 survey, which was the third survey since 2019.

80 Ibid. In 2019 the number was 63%.

81 V. Patel et al., above note 20, p. 1553.

82 33rd International Conference, Background Document, above note 37, pp. 4–5.

83 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, op. para. 7.

84 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, op. para. 7.

85 UNHCR Executive Committee, above note 58, para. (c); HRC Res. 52/12, above note 48, op. paras 5, 11; WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, preambular para. 9; UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, preambular para. 13 and para. 1.

86 33rd International Conference, Background Document, above note 37, p. 5.

87 HRC Res. 52/12, above note 48, op. para. 15; UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, op. paras 7, 12–15.

88 WHO, above note 78, p. 43. See also Ukrainian Red Cross Society, Report on 33rd IC Resolution 2: Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies, 11 July 2024, available at: https://rcrcconference.org/res-report-33rd/report-on-33rd-ic-resolution-2-addressing-mental-health-and-psychosocial-needs-of-people-affected-by-armed-conflicts-natural-disasters-and-other-emergencies-33ic-19-r2-ukrainian-red-cross-soci/.

89 33rd International Conference, Res. 2, above note 2, preambular para. 7; 33rd International Conference, Background Document, above note 37, p. 6.

90 33rd International Conference, Background Document, above note 37, p. 6.

91 Ibid.

92 33rd International Conference, Res. 3, Geneva, 2019, para. 8.

93 Sazada Siddiqui, Heba Waheeb Saeed Alhamdi and Huda Ahmed Alghamdi, “Recent Chronology of COVID-19 Pandemic”, Frontiers in Public Health, Vol. 10, 2022.

94 WHO, Mental Health Preparedness and Response for the COVID-19 Pandemic: Report by the Director-General, EB148/20, 21 January 2021, paras 10–11; WHA Decision 74(14), “Mental Health Preparedness for and Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic”, 2021; HRC Res. 52/12, above note 48, paras 14–15; UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, para. 9; ICRC and IFRC, “The Greatest Need Was to Be Listened To”: The Importance of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support during COVID-19: Experiences and Recommendations from the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Geneva, 2020, pp. 20–22; WHO, Promoting Mental Health Preparedness and Response for Public Health Emergencies, 148th session, Doc. EB148(3), 20 January 2021, para. 3.

95 IASC, above note 25; UNHCR Executive Committee, above note 58, para. (g); 2019 Council of Delegates, Res. 5, above note 33, Policy Statement 7.

96 UNGA Res. 77/300, above note 56, para. 9.

97 WHA Res. 77.3, above note 22, para. 8: “developing and implementing organizational policies (e.g. related to security, supervision, rest, discrimination, and harassment, including sexual misconduct) that protect their mental health, while equipping these workers and volunteers as well as their managers with the necessary skills, tools and supervision to cope with stressful situations and responding to their specific mental health and psychosocial needs”.

98 UNSC Res. 2668, 21 December 2022.

99 See UN, United Nations System Mental Health and Well-Being Strategy (2018–2023), and the subsequent United Nations System Mental Health and Well-Being Strategy for 2024 and Beyond, New York, 2024.

100 UNSC Res. 2668, above note 98, preambular para. 8.

101 UNSC Res. 2730, 24 May 2024, para. 11.

102 2024 Council of Delegates, Res. 5, “Call for Respect and Support for Principled Humanitarian Action”, 2019, Annex, “Appeal to States”, para. 6. For further information on the humanitarian impact of harmful information, including psychological harm, see IFRC, World Disasters Report 2026: Truth, Trust and Humanitarian Action in the Age of Harmful Information, Geneva, March 2026, p. 47 on typology of harm.

103 2009 Council of Delegates, Res. 8, “Respecting and Protecting Health Care in Armed Conflict and Other Situations of Violence”, Nairobi, 23–25 November 2009; 31st International Conference, Res. 5, “Health Care in Danger: Respecting and Protecting Health Care”, Geneva, Switzerland, 2011; 32nd International Conference, Res. 4, “Health Care in Danger: Continuing to Protect the Delivery of Health Care Together”, Geneva, 2015; 32nd International Conference, Res. 5, above note 12; UNSC Res. 2286, 3 May 2016.

104 UNSC Res. 2730, above note 101, preambular para. 16, emphasizes the need to support the health and well-being of humanitarian personnel.

105 Declaration for the Protection of Humanitarian Personnel, available at: https://protect-humanitarian-personnel.org/.

106 ICRC and IFRC, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Commitments on Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs: A Roadmap for Implementation 2020–2023, December 2019, available at: https://mhpsshub.org/resource/a-roadmap-for-implementing-international-red-cross-and-red-crescent-movement-commitments-on-addressing-mental-health-and-psychosocial-needs-2020-202/.

107 34th International Conference, Report on International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Resolution Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies, Geneva, September 2024, pp. 6–7.

108 ICRC and IFRC, above note 79, p. 19.

109 Ibid., p. 3.

110 Ibid.

111 Ukraine, Report on 33rd IC Resolution 2: Addressing Mental Health and Psychosocial Needs of People Affected by Armed Conflicts, Natural Disasters and Other Emergencies, available at: https://rcrcconference.org/res-report-33rd/report-on-33rd-ic-resolution-2-addressing-mental-health-and-psychosocial-needs-of-people-affected-by-armed-conflicts-natural-disasters-and-other-emergencies-33ic-19-r2-ukraine/; Dmytro Martsenkovskyi et al., “Mental Health in Ukraine in 2023”, European Psychiatry, Vol. 67, No. 1, 2024, “Conclusions” and “Background”, available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10988158/.

112 Ukrainian Red Cross Society, “Mental Health and Psychosocial Support”, available at: https://redcross.org.ua/en/mhpss/; Ukrainian Red Cross Society, above note 88.

113 Russian Red Cross, “In-Person Psychological Support Preferred by Over 45% of Respondents, Russian Red Cross Study Shows”, 16 January 2026, available at: https://redcross.ru/en/news/in-person-psychological-support-preferred-by-over-45-of-respondents-russian-red-cross-study-shows/.

114 IFRC, Emergency Appeal: Ukraine and Impacted Countries Crisis, MGR65002, April 2022, p. 6, available at: www.ifrc.org/sites/default/files/media/appeal/file/2022-04/MGR65002ea1_0.pdf.

115 IFRC, Final Evaluation of the IFRC EU4Health Project: Provision of Quality and Timely Psychological First Aid to People Affected by Ukraine Crisis in Impacted Countries, December 2025, p. 1, available at: www.ifrc.org/evaluation/final-evaluation-eu4health-project.

116 IFRC, Red Cross Mental Health Response to the International Armed Conflict in Ukraine (2022–2025), Geneva, 2025, p. 9, available at: www.ifrc.org/document/red-cross-mental-health-response-international-armed-conflict-ukraine-2022-2025. Twenty-eight National Societies implemented MHPSS services under the project “Provision of Quality and Timely Psychological First Aid to People Affected by Ukraine Crisis in Impacted Countries”; see above note 115. Russian Red Cross activities were supported under the IFRC’s appeal: see IFRC, Ukraine and Impacted Countries: Four Year Report, Geneva, 2 May 2026, p. 25, available at: www.ifrc.org/emergency/ukraine-and-impacted-countries-crisis.

117 IFRC, Red Cross Mental Health Response, above note 116, p. 11; IFRC, above note 115, pp. i–ii; Ukrainian Red Cross Society, above note 88.

118 IASC, “Humanitarian Reset”, available at: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/humanitarian-reset-0; OECD, Preliminary Official Development Assistance Levels in 2025, Paris, 2026, p. 2.