Section 1: Overview

The opening section lays the foundation for the entire volume. It delves into the motivation behind the Element, provides essential background, and sets the stage for what follows. Readers will find a clear outline of the Element’s overall aims, along with a roadmap previewing Sections 2 through 5.

Section 2: IDLE

This section places IDLE within the sweeping changes brought about by globalization and technological advances from the 1990s to the 2020s. It discusses why IDLE is so relevant today, introducing four core principles – formality, location, pedagogy, and locus of control – that define its character. Further, the section breaks down IDLE into four distinct learning spaces, forming the backbone of the IDLE Continuum Model, a practical framework for teachers aiming to bring IDLE into formal classrooms. The discussion also contrasts IDLE with traditional English education and examines related concepts, such as Extramural English and Online Informal Learning of English. In addition, the section reviews key literature and recent trends, offering a holistic and up-to-date understanding of IDLE’s rapid expansion (Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist2009; Sockett, Reference Sockett2014; Toffoli & Sockett, Reference Toffoli and Sockett2015; Lee, Reference Lee2022a).

Section 3: Antecedents and Consequences of IDLE

Drawing on a wide array of empirical research, this section maps out both the precursors and outcomes of IDLE engagement. A comprehensive visual model illustrates these relationships, providing researchers and educators with a clear picture of what is already known about IDLE – and what remains to be explored. This section also serves as a practical guide, enabling the design of evidence-based IDLE interventions tailored to the needs of specific schools or communities.

Section 4: Bringing IDLE into Schools and Communities

As the evidence base for IDLE grows, so too does the call to embed it in formal education. This section begins with a candid look at the challenges faced in integrating IDLE into school systems in places such as Hong Kong and Indonesia. It introduces the IDLE Continuum Model, which gives educators at every level – K-12 and higher education – a flexible framework for blending IDLE into their curricula, supported by conceptual, empirical, and experimental research. Practical pedagogical strategies are discussed, showing how educators can transition smoothly across different modes of digital learning: from formal and non-formal settings to extracurricular and extramural experiences. The vital role of teachers – as context experts who understand both research and the unique needs of their students and institutions – is underscored. In alignment with the Research Excellence Framework’s emphasis on social impact, the section highlights how IDLE initiatives have reached beyond academia into communities, engaging stakeholders such as teachers, NGOs, government officials, and industry partners. It also introduces the “Care–Innovation–Sustainability Model” and illustrates how multidisciplinary teams have applied this model to IDLE implementation in Indonesian schools and communities.

Section 5: Future Directions for IDLE

Building on the cutting-edge research presented in Sections 1–4, the final section looks ahead to the future of IDLE. It charts pathways for expanding IDLE to more diverse learners and contexts – including young students and those in the Global South – and for embracing Languages Other Than English (LOTE), such as Korean and Chinese. The section explores how IDLE can be deepened by drawing on various theoretical frameworks, including ecological systems theory and the technology acceptance model. It encourages methodological innovation, whether through digital learner analytics or by adopting research approaches from other disciplines, such as experience sampling methods (ESM). Innovative strategies for integrating IDLE into schools are discussed, always with an eye on local contexts. Finally, the section advocates for IDLE as a tool for broader social impact, aiming to reach more learners and communities in alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals – particularly SDG 3 (health and well-being) and SDG 4 (quality education).

The 1990s: Wired and Walled in

In the 1990s, learning was often tied to bulky, wired devices – MP3 players, satellite TV boxes, and desktop computers – primarily available in wealthier, developed regions (Stockwell, Reference Stockwell2008). English instruction largely remained within conventional classrooms, shaped by fixed curricula and limited digital tools. Authentic English content – such as podcasts, films, or global media – was not widely accessible outside school, meaning students typically depended on textbooks and teacher guidance (Kim, Reference Kim2015).

The 2000s: Portability and Early Connections

With the turn of the millennium came a wave of educational change. Portable devices such as laptops and early tablets began to loosen the spatial constraints of learning (Kim, Reference Kim2015). The internet and email introduced learners to a broader array of English-language materials and intercultural interactions (Nah et al., Reference Nah, White and Sussex2008). Still, access to these tools was uneven. While some households in affluent areas such as northern Europe came online, the benefits were often limited to those with sufficient resources, reinforcing existing digital divides (McCallum & Tafazoli, Reference McCallum and Tafazoli2024).

The 2010s: On-the-Go Learning and Creative Autonomy

The 2010s marked the proliferation of smartphones, smartwatches, and social media platforms such as YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok, which arguably reduced the constraints of time and place (Chik & Ho, Reference Chik and Ho2017; Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2021). Lightweight, wireless devices enabled learners to turn idle moments – on public transport, in cafés, or at the gym – into potential learning opportunities (Reinders & Benson, Reference Reinders and Benson2017). Learners increasingly moved beyond passive consumption, producing their own content – memes, vlogs, and tutorials – aligned with their interests (Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2016; Chen, Reference Chen2020). This period may have fostered greater learner agency, allowing individuals to shape their English learning paths outside traditional publishing structures (Benson, Reference Benson2011a, Reference Benson, Benson and Reinders2011b).

The 2020s: Immersive and Personalized Experiences

Emerging technologies such as AI, VR, and AR are once again reshaping the landscape of language learning (Lin & Lan, Reference Lin and Lan2015; Kaplan-Rakowski et al., Reference Kaplan-Rakowski, Lin and Wojdynski2021). Generative AI can offer lessons tailored to individual learner profiles, while VR and AR simulate immersive English-speaking environments – virtual cafés, international conferences, or bustling cityscapes (Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2022; Stockwell & Wang, Reference Stockwell and Wang2025). Increasingly affordable and multifunctional devices may be helping to bridge geographic gaps, enabling real-time collaboration across borders (Dooly & Sadler, Reference Dooly and Sadler2013; Lee & Song, Reference Lee and Song2020). These tools appear to blur the line between formal instruction and informal exploration, potentially supporting fluency through experiential learning (Dressman et al., Reference 61Dressman, Lee and Perrot2023).

IDLE’s Bright Future: Learners in Control

This ongoing technological evolution seems to be positioning IDLE as a prominent mode of English learning. As digital tools become more adaptive, accessible, and embedded in daily life, learners may be gaining more autonomy over their language development (Lai, Reference 65Lai2017; Jeon, Reference Jeon2022; Lai & Lee, Reference Lai and Lee2024). IDLE offers alternatives to rigid curricula, suggesting more flexible and personalized pathways to proficiency in a world where English increasingly mediates global communication (Benson, Reference Benson, Benson and Reinders2011b; Reinders & Benson, Reference Reinders and Benson2017; Lee, Reference Lee2022a). Nonetheless, digital inequality continues to constrain access for some. The future of language learning may well unfold not only in classrooms but also across the expansive, digitally connected environments that many learners now navigate daily (Warschauer, Reference Warschauer2000; UNICEF, 2020; Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist, Ziegler and González-Lloret2022; Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025).

Review Papers on IDLE

As IDLE research grew, scholars published several review papers. Zhang et al. (Reference Zhang, Zou, Cheng, Xie, Wang and Au2021) analyzed extramural language learning, highlighting that most activities – such as watching videos, listening to music, and reading blogs – were primarily receptive. Their findings emphasized the positive impact of these activities on both linguistic skills (e.g., vocabulary growth) and psychological factors (e.g., motivation and confidence). Soyoof et al. (Reference Soyoof, Reynolds, Vazquez-Calvo and McLay2023) conducted a scoping review of IDLE, examining its linguistic, cultural, affective, and digital literacy dimensions across Asian and European contexts from 1980 to 2020. They demonstrated how IDLE promotes language learning in a variety of cultural and technological environments.

Lee (Reference Lee, Reinders, Lai and Sundqvist2022b) reviewed seventy-six studies on “language learning and teaching beyond the classroom,” identifying key gaps in the field, including the need for more rigorous methodologies and innovative tools to assess IDLE’s potential. In a related book, Lee (Reference Lee2022a) synthesized findings from multiple studies, showing strong links between IDLE activities and positive outcomes for EFL learners, such as enhanced fluency, motivation, and digital literacy.

Guo and Lee (Reference Guo and Lee2023) applied Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Reference Bronfenbrenner1976, Reference 59Bronfenbrenner1979) to explore the factors influencing learners’ IDLE engagement. They found that most critical factors operated at the individual and micro-system levels, such as personal interests, peer interactions, and access to technology. They also called for more research on less-studied levels, such as the meso-system (e.g., school–family relationships), exo-system (e.g., societal influences), macro-system (e.g., cultural norms), and chrono-system (e.g., the effects of technological advancements over time). Inspired by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Reference Bronfenbrenner1976, Reference 59Bronfenbrenner1979), Rezai et al. (Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b) examined teachers’ perspectives on students’ IDLE engagement, offering strategies to better support learners outside the classroom.

Guan and colleagues (Reference Guan, Li and Gu2024) made a significant contribution to IDLE research with a meta-analysis on AI-driven IDLE. Their study revealed that AI tools – such as language-learning chatbots, adaptive apps, and virtual reality platforms – greatly improved learners’ English proficiency, self-regulation, and engagement.

Kusyk et al. (Reference Kusyk, Arndt, Schwarz, Yibokou, Dressman, Sockett and Toffoli2025) carried out a scoping review exploring trends in informal second language learning, analyzing 206 studies published between 2000 and 2020. Their review highlighted a surge in research beginning in 2011, with peak activity between 2017 and 2019. The three most commonly explored themes were second language development (18.2%), mapping informal learning practices (17.5%), and describing informal learning activities (14.3%). They also uncovered a confusing mix of overlapping terms – such as out-of-class language learning, informal second language learning, Extramural English, online informal English learning, and IDLE – leading to what is known as the “jingle-jangle fallacy.” The “jingle–jangle fallacy” occurs when different constructs are mistakenly considered the same because they have the same name (jingle), or when similar constructs are mistakenly considered different because they have different names (jangle; Kelley, Reference Kelley1927). In language learning research, this fallacy can result in conceptual confusion and hinder the comparison of findings across studies (Kusyk et al., Reference Kusyk, Arndt, Schwarz, Yibokou, Dressman, Sockett and Toffoli2025). A wide range of theoretical frameworks were applied, including sociocultural theory, complex dynamic systems, learner autonomy, and ecological approaches. Quantitative methods dominated (41%), followed by qualitative (33%) and mixed methods (20%), with surveys (35.7%) and interviews (23%) being the most used tools. The research primarily focused on young adults aged 18–25 (54.4%) and adolescents aged 11–17 (21.8%), with recent studies concentrating on Europe and East Asia. English was the target language in most cases (66.4%). Various learner-related variables were examined, such as usage frequency, attitudes, motivation, activity diversity, confidence in using the second language, and willingness to communicate. Although the review concluded before the rise of AI tools, it offers a comprehensive snapshot of the field’s evolution and pinpoints promising directions for future inquiry.

Liu, Soyoof, Lee, and Zhang (Reference Liu, Soyoof, Lee and Zhang2025) conducted a thematic review of IDLE research, analyzing forty-nine empirical studies from Asian EFL contexts published between 2014 and 2024. Echoing the trends identified by Kusyk et al. (Reference Kusyk, Arndt, Schwarz, Yibokou, Dressman, Sockett and Toffoli2025), they found that IDLE has gained substantial attention, especially in the past four years. Their review revealed that IDLE has been examined through various lenses of individual differences – linguistic, emotional, and cultural. Another key insight was the nuanced and sometimes complicated relationship between teachers and IDLE practices. The study also emphasized how unequal access to digital tools and differing levels of digital literacy shaped learners’ participation in IDLE. Drawing from these emerging patterns, the authors proposed several avenues for future research.

Dressman et al. (Reference Dressman, Toffoli and Lee2025) examined forty-seven narratives drawn from fourteen studies focused on informal language learning. These narratives, rich in ethnographic detail, traced how individuals’ language abilities evolved over time in informal settings. By analyzing these stories, the researchers were able to map out seven distinct pathways of language development, shedding light on key factors and circumstances that shape each learner’s experience. Their review makes it clear that IDLE does not follow a single, predictable route; instead, it is a highly individualized process shaped by a range of personal and contextual variables.

Emerging Trends and Expanding Horizons

The field of IDLE is witnessing rapid expansion, sparking a proliferation of research that is reshaping our perspectives on language learning in the digital era. For instance, Rezai (Reference Rezai2024) and Rezai et al. (Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024a) investigated how IDLE influences the professional engagement of EFL teachers. Moving beyond simple observation, they designed a robust instrument to systematically measure teachers’ own involvement in digital informal learning. This innovative scale provides concrete metrics for evaluating educators’ interactions with digital environments, offering valuable insights into the ways these platforms impact teaching practices.

Meanwhile, the infusion of artificial intelligence into IDLE has become a major focal point. Studies by Guan, Zhang, and Gu (Reference Guan, Li and Gu2024), along with Liu, Darvin, and Ma (Reference 69Liu, Darvin and Ma2024a, Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b), have uncovered how AI-driven tools are revolutionizing language learning. Innovative technologies such as chatbots simulate real-life conversations, AI-powered writing assistants provide personalized feedback, and immersive virtual reality platforms create engaging environments for practice (Naghdipour, Reference Naghdipour2022). These tools offer learners tailored, interactive experiences that make practicing English more accessible and enjoyable than ever before.

But the enthusiasm is not confined to English alone. Reflecting our increasingly interconnected world, researchers have begun turning their attention to Languages Other Than English (LOTE). For example, Liu, Zhao, and Yang (Reference Yang, Xu, Liu and Yu2024) explored how learners are informally studying French and German through digital platforms. Using language apps, online communities, and digital media, learners are finding creative and dynamic ways to immerse themselves in new languages. Similarly, Lee et al. (Reference Lee and Chiu2023) examined how multilingual learners are picking up Korean through informal digital means. From diving into Korean drama fan sites to joining German gaming forums, these platforms offer authentic, real-world contexts that foster language exposure and practice. Such informal engagement not only increases learners’ time spent with the language but also boosts their willingness to communicate and may enhance their overall communicative competence.

Affective Benefits

• Lowered anxiety (Lee & Xie, Reference Lee and Xie2023; Uztosun & Kök, Reference Uztosun and Kök2023; Wouters et al., Reference Wouters, Bollansée, Prophète and Peters2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025)

• Less boredom (Taherian et al., Reference Taherian, Shirvan, Yazdanmehr, Kruk and Pawlak2023)

• Greater enjoyment (Lai et al., Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015; Lee & Lee, Reference Lee and Lee2021; Lee & Xie, Reference Lee and Xie2023; Tsang & Lee, Reference 76Tsang and Lee2023; Lee et al., Reference Lee2024; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; Fu, Reference Fu2025; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025)

• Increased confidence (Lai et al., Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015; Lee & Drajati, Reference Lee and Drajati2019b; Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025)

• Heightened motivation (Lee & Drajati, Reference Lee and Drajati2019b; Tsang & Lee, Reference 76Tsang and Lee2023; Wouters et al., Reference Wouters, Bollansée, Prophète and Peters2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025)

• Stronger investment (Liu & Darvin, Reference Liu and Darvin2023)

• Enhanced social presence (Wu, Reference Wu2023)

• Higher online engagement (Wu, Reference Wu2023)

• Higher online course satisfaction (Zheng & Xiao, Reference Zheng and Xiao2024)

Learning and teaching a new language are deeply emotional processes (Richards, Reference 73Richards2020). For teachers, understanding and responding to learners’ emotions is a core professional skill. For students, emotions shape how they approach and absorb new knowledge. In recent years, the field has experienced an “affective turn” (Prior, Reference Prior2019), as researchers increasingly acknowledge the central role of emotions in language learning. Early studies focused mostly on negative emotions – anxiety, fear, or shame – but the rise of positive psychology has ushered in a wave of research on positive experiences in language acquisition (Dewaele & MacIntyre, Reference Dewaele and MacIntyre2014, Reference Dewaele, MacIntyre, MacIntyre, Gregersen and Mercer2016). Positive psychology seeks not just fleeting happiness but authentic well-being, resilience, fulfillment, and a sense of being true to oneself (MacIntyre et al., Reference MacIntyre, Gregersen and Mercer2016). This has shifted scholarly attention toward the power of positive emotions to enhance language learning.

This new focus on emotion and well-being has deeply influenced research on IDLE. Studies now suggest that IDLE significantly shapes learners’ emotions and attitudes, nurturing positive feelings while easing negative ones (Lai et al., Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015; Lee & Lee, Reference Lee and Lee2021; Uztosun & Kök, Reference Uztosun and Kök2023). IDLE reduces the anxiety common in language learning by creating a relaxed, low-pressure environment. Digital tools (e.g., language apps and educational games) let students practice English at their own rhythm, free from the scrutiny and stress of the traditional classroom. This sense of autonomy makes learners more comfortable and less afraid of making linguistic mistakes (Uztosun & Kök, Reference Uztosun and Kök2023; Wouters et al., Reference Wouters, Bollansée, Prophète and Peters2024).

Lee and Xie (Reference Lee and Xie2023), using a person-centered approach, found intriguing patterns among 1,265 Korean EFL learners who participated in a variety of IDLE activities. Their findings showed that students who balanced their IDLE time across gaming, entertainment, English learning, and social interaction experienced noticeably less anxiety during face-to-face English conversations than those whose IDLE activities revolved mainly around gaming and entertainment.

But the benefits of IDLE go beyond reducing anxiety – it also injects excitement and genuine interest into language learning (Lee & Lee, Reference Lee and Lee2021; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024). Interactive digital platforms turn what could be a monotonous task into an engaging, playful journey, sparking curiosity and making learning feel meaningful and fun (Taherian et al., Reference Taherian, Shirvan, Yazdanmehr, Kruk and Pawlak2023). Lee and Xie (Reference Lee and Xie2023) further discovered that learners who diversified their IDLE experiences – incorporating English learning and socialization along with entertainment – reported greater enjoyment in studying English than those who stuck only to gaming and entertainment. The hands-on, interactive features of these digital tools keep learners actively involved, boosting both their motivation and enthusiasm.

Learners often discover real enjoyment in self-directed activities tailored to their own interests (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025). Whether it is watching English-language YouTube videos, joining online communities, or exploring digital content tied to their hobbies, these experiences allow students to connect with English in ways that feel meaningful and fun (Lai et al., Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015; Lee & Lee, Reference Lee and Lee2021). Here, learning blends seamlessly with leisure, making progress feel less like work and more like play (Chik & Ho, Reference Chik and Ho2017).

Small wins – such as understanding a movie without subtitles or confidently posting in an online forum – can give learners a powerful boost in self-belief (Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2023). Each success story strengthens their confidence and encourages them to keep going (Lai et al., Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015; Lee & Drajati, Reference Lee and Drajati2019b). This growing self-assurance motivates learners to take on new challenges and fosters a positive image of themselves as capable language users (Lee & Lee, Reference Lee and Lee2021; Liu & Lee, Reference Liu, Lee, Toffoli, Sockett and Kusyk2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; Fu, Reference Fu2025).

IDLE naturally integrates language practice into learners’ daily passions, whether that is gaming, music, or social media (Dressman et al., Reference 61Dressman, Lee and Perrot2023). When learning is woven into activities they already love, motivation and commitment soar (Lee & Lee, Reference Lee and Lee2021; Guan et al., Reference Guan, Li and Gu2024). This relevance inspires learners to invest more time and energy, making English a natural and enjoyable part of everyday life (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023).

Digital platforms also build a strong sense of community, connecting learners with peers around the world (Sauro, Reference Sauro2017; Vazquez-Calvo et al., Reference Vazquez-Calvo, Zhang, Pascual and Cassany2019). Through online discussions, comments, and collaboration, students gain a sense of belonging to a supportive network where they can share, learn, and encourage each other (Wu, Reference Wu2023). Such connections not only increase motivation but also provide the emotional support needed for sustained learning (Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference 78Zadorozhnyy and Lee2025).

Zheng and Xiao (Reference Zheng and Xiao2024) explored how engaging in IDLE influences online course satisfaction among 563 Chinese university EFL students. Their findings revealed that students who participated in IDLE activities more often felt more satisfied with their online courses, appreciating both the course design and their teachers’ effectiveness. The study also uncovered that self-regulated learning online played a key mediating role in this relationship. In other words, students who frequently engaged in IDLE tended to develop stronger self-regulation skills, such as setting goals, managing their time, using effective learning strategies, and evaluating their own progress. These enhanced skills, in turn, boosted their satisfaction with online courses.

Psychological Benefits

• Better psychological well-being (Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2024)

• Greater autonomy and sense of relatedness (Wu & Wang, Reference Wu and Wang2025)

• Growth in self-regulated online learning (Rezai & Goodarzi, Reference Rezai and Goodarzi2025)

• Flow experiences (Wu & Wang, Reference Wu and Wang2025)

• Increased grit (Lee & Lu, Reference Lee and Lu2023; Liu & Lee, Reference Liu, Lee, Toffoli, Sockett and Kusyk2023; Fu, Reference Fu2025)

• Greater peace of mind in language learning (Ghasemi & Noughabi, Reference Ghasemi and Noughabi2024)

• Higher willingness to communicate (Lee & Drajati, Reference Lee and Drajati2019b; Taherian et al., Reference Taherian, Shirvan, Yazdanmehr, Kruk and Pawlak2023; Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2023; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2024; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; Yang et al., Reference Yang, Xu, Liu and Yu2024; Fu, Reference Fu2025; Guo et al., Reference Guo, Yao and Lee2025; Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025)

The psychological rewards of engaging in IDLE reach well beyond simple language gains – they play a powerful role in nurturing learners’ mental health and boosting their openness to communication (Taherian et al., Reference Taherian, Shirvan, Yazdanmehr, Kruk and Pawlak2023; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2024; Yang et al., Reference Yang, Xu, Liu and Yu2024). By creating a low-stress, supportive learning space, IDLE helps foster a sense of balance and well-being in daily life (Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2024). When students interact with enjoyable digital platforms, language study becomes not just more relaxed, but also more personally satisfying compared to traditional classroom approaches (Liu & Lee, Reference Liu, Lee, Toffoli, Sockett and Kusyk2023; Ghasemi & Noughabi, Reference Ghasemi and Noughabi2024). For instance, Rezai and Goodarzi (Reference Rezai and Goodarzi2025) discovered that among 325 Iranian EFL students, those who used IDLE more frequently displayed stronger skills in self-regulated online learning. These learners excelled at setting goals, organizing their study environment, developing effective strategies, managing their time, seeking help when needed, and evaluating their own progress.

Wu and Wang (Reference Wu and Wang2025) discovered that when 333 Chinese university students used GenAI-supported IDLE, they often entered a state of “flow” – that deep, effortless concentration where learning feels both easy and enjoyable (Csikszentmihalyi, Reference Csikszentmihalyi2014). Importantly, these students also felt a greater sense of independence and a stronger bond with others – two key factors for psychological well-being. This shows that GenAI-powered language activities can help students take charge of their own learning while feeling connected, even in a digital environment.

IDLE also nurtures “grit” – the determination to keep trying and stay interested, even when faced with setbacks (Duckworth, Reference Duckworth2017). By giving learners the chance to repeatedly face new challenges and still enjoy the process, IDLE has the potential for strengthening their grit (Liu & Lee, Reference Liu, Lee, Toffoli, Sockett and Kusyk2023; Fu, Reference Fu2025). Lee and Xie (Reference Lee and Xie2023), using a person-centered approach, found that Korean EFL learners who balanced their IDLE time among gaming, entertainment, English study, and socializing showed much more grit than those who focused mainly on gaming and entertainment.

Another key psychological benefit is what researchers describe as “foreign language peace of mind” – a comforting sense of inner calm and coherence while navigating a new language (Ghasemi & Noughabi, Reference Ghasemi and Noughabi2024). Among 316 Iranian EFL students, those who regularly engaged in IDLE activities – whether listening, reading, writing, or speaking – reported feeling more at ease with English, which in turn boosted their willingness to communicate. Free from the anxiety of being judged or making mistakes, learners can experiment, participate in online conversations, comment on social media, or use language apps without the fear that often shadows classroom settings. This growing sense of ease naturally leads to greater willingness to communicate, even in unfamiliar or real-world situations. As learners become more confident and adept, they are more likely to start conversations, offer opinions, or connect with strangers – actions they might have shied away from before (Ghasemi & Noughabi, Reference Ghasemi and Noughabi2024; Lee et al., Reference Lee2024).

Cognitive Advantages

• Improved academic achievement (Lai et al., Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015; Sundqvist & Wikström, Reference Sundqvist and Wikström2015)

• Stronger performance on standardized English exams (Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025)

• Greater self-efficacy (Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2023)

IDLE does not just broaden learners’ language skills – it fuels cognitive growth on multiple levels. When students immerse themselves in informal digital activities – like exploring educational apps, watching insightful videos, or joining online discussions – they add meaningful layers to their formal education. Research by Lai et al. (Reference Lai, Zhu and Gong2015) and Sundqvist and Wikström (Reference Sundqvist and Wikström2015) shows that this combination of formal and informal learning often leads to higher grades and better classroom participation. Supporting this, Zou et al. (Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025) found that Chinese university students who regularly participated in meaning-focused IDLE activities scored higher on the College English Test–Band 4 (CET-4), a rigorous, nationwide exam that measures listening, reading, writing, and translation skills across China. The CET-4, much like academic grades, is designed to assess a wide range of cognitive abilities, from comprehension to language production. In this way, IDLE acts as both a language booster and a cognitive catalyst – helping students achieve more in their studies while strengthening their ability to analyze, understand, and use English in practical contexts.

Beyond academic results, IDLE fosters a stronger sense of self-efficacy – the conviction that one can take charge of their own learning process (Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2023). When students make choices about what and how to learn, they gain confidence and stay motivated, consistently building their language skills. Zadorozhnyy and Lee (Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2023) highlight how this sense of ownership leads to steady progress and personal development.

Linguistic Benefits

• Expanded vocabulary (Sundqvist & Wikström, Reference Sundqvist and Wikström2015; Jensen, Reference 64Jensen2017; Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist2019; Alhaq, Reference Alhaq2022; Lai et al., Reference Lai, Liu, Hu, Benson and Lyu2022; Warnby, Reference Warnby2022; Lai & Wang, Reference Lai and Wang2024, Reference Lai and Wang2025; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024c)

• Sharper reading comprehension (Cole & Vanderplank, Reference 60Cole and Vanderplank2016; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025)

• Deeper understanding of grammar (Cole & Vanderplank, Reference 60Cole and Vanderplank2016)

• Stronger writing skills (Kusyk, Reference Kusyk2017)

• Enhanced speaking abilities (Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist2009; Lee & Dressman, Reference Lee and Dressman2018; Tsang & Lee, Reference 76Tsang and Lee2023)

One of IDLE’s greatest advantages is its ability to boost every aspect of language proficiency. When learners immerse themselves in genuine, everyday situations – such as gaming online, watching streaming videos, or chatting on social media – they naturally pick up fresh vocabulary, including slang and expressions rarely found in traditional textbooks (De Wilde et al., Reference De Wilde, Brysbaert and Eyckmans2022; Lai & Wang, Reference Lai and Wang2024). This natural exposure leads to a richer, more practical command of language (Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist2009; Lee & Dressman, Reference Lee and Dressman2018). Watching movies or TV with subtitles, browsing blogs, and reading online articles all sharpen reading comprehension skills (Cole & Vanderplank, Reference 60Cole and Vanderplank2016; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025). For example, Rezai et al. (Reference Rezai, Ashkani and Moradian2025) found that Iranian university students who participated in both extracurricular and informal IDLE activities showed significantly higher reading comprehension scores than those in the control group.

Engaging with a wide range of written texts allows learners to decode meanings, appreciate different writing styles, and handle increasingly complex content (Cole & Vanderplank, Reference 60Cole and Vanderplank2016; Tsang, Reference Tsang2023). Frequent encounters with natural language in context mean learners start to pick up grammar intuitively, without needing to memorize endless rules (Cole & Vanderplank, Reference 60Cole and Vanderplank2016). Observing and hearing correct usage in everyday settings helps them internalize grammatical structures, making their language use more accurate and fluid (Arndt & Woore, Reference Arndt and Woore2018).

Writing skills also get a boost as students engage in real communication – whether it is posting on forums, leaving comments, or keeping online journals (Kusyk, Reference Kusyk2017). These activities sharpen their ability to organize thoughts, express ideas clearly, and tailor their writing for different audiences. Meanwhile, video chats, multiplayer games, and interactive online discussions offer a safe space to practice speaking, improving both fluency and pronunciation by mimicking native speakers and interacting in real time (Lee & Dressman, Reference Lee and Dressman2018; Tsang & Lee, Reference 76Tsang and Lee2023). By combining a range of IDLE activities with targeted classroom support from teachers to address anything not picked up through IDLE, IDLE fosters the development of well-rounded language skills (Schurz & Sundqvist, Reference Schurz and Sundqvist2022).

Cultural Awareness

• Openness to diverse cultures (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023)

• Awareness of English varieties (Lee & Drajati, Reference 67Lee and Drajati2019a; Lee, Reference Lee2020b; Lee et al., Reference Lee2024)

• Development of intercultural competence (Lee, Reference Lee2020b; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023)

IDLE does far more than build language skills – it serves as a powerful gateway to cultural awareness, immersing learners in a tapestry of perspectives and ideas from around the globe (Lee, Reference Lee2020b; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023; Lee et al., Reference Lee2024). When learners dive into international content, they are not simply acquiring new vocabulary or grammar; they are stepping into new worlds, encountering different traditions, beliefs, and viewpoints that expand their understanding of what it means to be part of a global society (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023).

Engaging with authentic materials – whether it is watching foreign films, reading international literature, or joining global online discussions – pushes learners to open their minds and adapt to unfamiliar cultural experiences (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023). This kind of exposure not only nurtures curiosity and appreciation for diversity, but it also breaks down stereotypes, fostering empathy and genuine respect for others (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023). As learners connect with realities beyond their own, they become more inclusive and better equipped to navigate an interconnected world (Lee, Reference Lee2022a).

Through IDLE, learners encounter a rich array of English accents and dialects, deepening their appreciation for the language’s diversity on a global scale (Lee & Drajati, Reference 67Lee and Drajati2019a; Lee, Reference Lee2020b). Hearing English spoken in countless varieties – from British and American to Australian, Indian, or Korean – highlights its role as a living, evolving lingua franca (Graddol, Reference Graddol2006; Crystal, Reference Crystal2010). This awareness encourages learners to become flexible communicators, comfortable with the many ways English is shaped by different cultures and histories (Lee & Drajati, Reference 67Lee and Drajati2019a).

Such wide-ranging exposure naturally builds intercultural competence, arming learners with the confidence and sensitivity needed for effective cross-cultural communication (Lee & Drajati, Reference 67Lee and Drajati2019a). They become skilled at interpreting subtle cultural cues and adjusting their communication styles to bridge differences. True intercultural competence means moving beyond awareness – it is about applying empathy, active listening, and adaptability in real-life interactions across diverse settings. By nurturing cultural awareness, IDLE prepares learners to actively participate in our interconnected world (Lee, Reference Lee2020b; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023). It empowers them to engage in thoughtful conversations, work collaboratively with people from all backgrounds, and make meaningful contributions to global communities. In this way, IDLE not only advances cultural fluency – an invaluable asset in today’s multicultural societies and workplaces – but also supports the lifelong learning journey envisioned by the UN SDGs, ensuring learners are prepared to contribute meaningfully throughout their lives (Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist, Ziegler and González-Lloret2022).

Pedagogical Enhancements

• Stronger technological pedagogical content knowledge (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024a)

• Greater digital competence (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024a)

• Job engagement (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024a)

The impact of IDLE is not limited to students – it powerfully empowers educators as well, allowing them to elevate their teaching and seamlessly weave technology into their classrooms. For example, Rezai et al. (Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024a) explored how IDLE relates to technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), digital competence, and job engagement among 375 Iranian EFL teachers. Their findings revealed a strong positive connection: teachers who engaged with IDLE displayed higher levels of TPACK and digital competence, which in turn boosted their engagement and enthusiasm for their work. Notably, both TPACK and digital competence served as bridges, linking IDLE involvement to increased job satisfaction and commitment. These results highlight that IDLE not only advances teachers’ technological and pedagogical skills but also fuels their passion for teaching, fostering a more dynamic, innovative, and rewarding classroom environment.

However, it is important to recognize that not every teacher is able to enhance their pedagogical or technological skills. For example, Becker (Reference Becker2022) found that most of the seventy-three EFL teachers surveyed in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, had never used video games in their teaching. Many cited a lack of interest in video games, uncertainty about effective methods, and unfamiliarity with the necessary teaching strategies. Similar barriers were reported by Hong Kong EFL teachers in Zadorozhnyy et al. (Reference Zadorozhnyy, Lai and Lee2025). Based on 470 survey responses from 159 teachers collected between 2019 and 2024, the challenges to integrating IDLE stemmed from both internal factors (like insufficient training and familiarity) and external pressures (such as exam-driven curricula and heavy workloads). Therefore, it becomes clear that while individual initiative is important, broader systemic or structural support is also essential to help teachers successfully bring innovative pedagogies like IDLE into schools.

Sociobiographic Factors

• Gender (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023)

• Age (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

• Personality traits (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

• Family income (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

• Ethnicity (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

• Number of digital devices in use (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023)

• Majors (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023)

• University type (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023)

• Standardized test results (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023)

The demographic and social characteristics of learners significantly influence how they engage with IDLE. Elements, such as gender, age, personality traits, socioeconomic status, cultural background, ethnicity, and academic background, all play crucial roles in shaping their participation.

Gender impacts engagement levels in notable ways (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023). Research indicates that males and females often differ not only in how frequently they interact with IDLE but also in the types of activities they prefer (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023). For example, male learners might be more drawn to competitive gaming platforms or technology-focused forums, while female learners may gravitate toward collaborative learning apps or social media communities that foster communication and connection.

Age is another important factor influencing engagement with IDLE (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Younger learners tend to favor games and entertainment-based methods, finding interactive apps, virtual reality experiences, and gamified learning platforms both engaging and relatable (Butler, Reference Butler2015; Sundqvist & Wikström, Reference Sundqvist and Wikström2015). These tools align with their familiarity with digital entertainment and their desire for immersive experiences. By contrast, older learners often prefer structured or academic content, such as online courses, webinars, and educational websites that provide formal instruction with clear objectives and outcomes (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). They might appreciate organized content that mirrors traditional educational settings and offers depth in specific subject areas.

Personality traits profoundly shape how learners approach IDLE (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Individuals who are open to new experiences may eagerly explore diverse digital resources, experiment with unconventional learning methods, and embrace cutting-edge technologies. Their curiosity drives them to seek out innovative platforms and engage with a variety of content. On the other hand, learners who exhibit conscientiousness might adopt disciplined study schedules, utilize organized apps with progress-tracking features, and prefer platforms that allow them to set goals and monitor achievements (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Their methodical nature ensures they make consistent progress and maintain focus on their learning objectives.

Socioeconomic status can greatly shape a learner’s experience with IDLE (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Family income, for instance, often determines whether students have easy access to essential technology such as computers, tablets, or stable internet (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Students from wealthier households typically enjoy a range of digital devices at their fingertips, allowing them to explore online resources freely and without barriers. In contrast, those from less advantaged backgrounds may struggle with limited or shared devices and unreliable internet, making it harder to fully participate in independent digital learning (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023). This gap reflects broader issues of digital inequality, where access, adaptability, and the ability to create knowledge using technology are crucial for inclusion in today’s digital world (Warschauer, Reference Warschauer2003). However, our research also shows that simply having access to devices and resources – which is often the case for students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds – does not automatically guarantee effective learning (Lee, Reference 66Lee2019). What truly matters is how students use these tools to achieve meaningful outcomes. Warschauer (Reference Warschauer2003) highlighted this point by critiquing the “hole-in-the-wall” project in India, where merely installing computer kiosks in communities did not necessarily lead to positive learning experiences, and sometimes even proved harmful. As he aptly put it, “minimally invasive education was, in practice, minimally effective education” (Warschauer, Reference Warschauer2003, p. 2). This underscores the importance of thoughtfully guided use of technology, rather than relying solely on access.

Cultural background and ethnicity significantly influence learners’ attitudes toward IDLE (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Cultural values and societal norms affect how learners perceive digital learning and the importance they place on acquiring English through digital means. For instance, in some cultures, there may be a strong emphasis on traditional face-to-face instruction, valuing direct interaction with teachers and classmates. In others, there might be widespread encouragement to embrace technology in education, viewing digital tools as essential for advancement and global communication. These cultural differences shape learners’ preferences, the types of content they engage with, and how much value they assign to digital English learning (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Understanding these nuances is crucial for developing effective and culturally responsive educational strategies.

Academic background is another key factor impacting engagement with IDLE (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023). A learner’s field of study, the type of university or educational institution they attend, and their academic performance can influence their participation. Students majoring in English, linguistics, or related disciplines may engage more actively in IDLE because it directly supports their academic and career aspirations (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023). For example, a student studying international relations might use language exchange apps to practice English with peers worldwide, enhancing both their language skills and cultural understanding. Similarly, learners with higher test scores or those attending universities that prioritize technology integration may be more inclined to incorporate IDLE into their learning routines (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023). Their academic environment fosters an atmosphere where digital learning is encouraged and readily accessible.

Internal Factors

• Ideal L2 selves (Lee & Lu, Reference Lee and Lu2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023, Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b; Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025)

• Ought-to L2 selves (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b; Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025)

• Enjoyment (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b)

• International posture (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023)

• Perceived usefulness toward IDLE (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2022; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

• Basic psychological needs (Fathali & Okada, Reference Fathali and Okada2018; Sockett & Toffoli, Reference Sockett, Toffoli, Dressman and Sadler2020; Toffoli, Reference Toffoli2020; Jeon, Reference Jeon2022; Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2024, Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025)

• Perceived speaking skills (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2023)

• Self-efficacy (Barkati et al., Reference Barkati, Kiyanfar, Noughabi and Ershadi2024)

• Digital literacy skills (Barkati et al., Reference Barkati, Kiyanfar, Noughabi and Ershadi2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

• Grit (Barkati et al., Reference Barkati, Kiyanfar, Noughabi and Ershadi2024)

• Pride (Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025)

• Emotion regulation strategies (Guo et al., Reference Guo, Yao and Lee2025)

Learner-internal factors revolve around the personal characteristics and psychological traits that drive individuals to participate in IDLE. These internal motivations are deeply rooted in how learners perceive themselves and their aspirations in mastering the English language.

One key driving force is the idea of the learner’s “ideal L2 self ” – the vision they hold of themselves as confident, capable English speakers in the future (Dörnyei, Reference Dörnyei, Dörnyei and Ushioda2009). This imagined self becomes a powerful source of motivation, pushing learners to immerse themselves in IDLE as they work toward making this vision a reality (Lee & Lu, Reference Lee and Lu2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b; Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025). For example, Lee and Lu (Reference Lee and Lu2023) interviewed a student named Tim, who shared, “I have a few foreign friends on WeChat [Chinese popular social media]. We have become friends during the overseas music contest. I often talk about the music and musical instruments to them on WeChat [through speaking and typing] in my spare time” (p. 137). Tim’s experience highlights how a vivid ideal L2 self can encourage Chinese EFL students to actively participate in IDLE activities.

Alongside this internal motivation is the notion of the “ought-to L2 self,” which captures the external expectations and pressures learners feel – from academic demands, career ambitions, or broader cultural values that stress the importance of English (Dörnyei, Reference Dörnyei, Dörnyei and Ushioda2009). These outside influences create a sense of duty, further fueling learners’ commitment to mastering the language (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b; Zou et al., Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025). These dual motivations – the ideal and ought-to selves – combine to push learners to actively seek out and persist in IDLE activities. The desire to fulfill personal aspirations while meeting societal expectations creates a strong internal drive that sustains their engagement over time.

Enjoyment plays a vital role in shaping learners’ dedication to IDLE (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b). When students truly find joy and satisfaction in their digital language activities, they are much more likely to stick with them (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Darvin and Ma2024b). This sense of enjoyment often springs from interactive language games, dynamic multimedia content, or meaningful online exchanges with others (Lee, Reference Lee2022a). Such positive experiences not only boost motivation but also transform language learning into a fun, engaging pursuit rather than a tedious obligation (Papi & Hiver, Reference Papi and Hiver2025).

While Lin (Reference Lin2023) did not directly measure enjoyment, the study focused on L2 interest – closely related to pleasure in learning – among 631 university students in the US taking various language courses (Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish). Using “out-of-class L2 contact” as a variable, Lin tracked how often students used language resources outside the classroom, such as social media, movies, music, news, and emails. The findings revealed that students with higher interest in their new language engaged more frequently with these digital resources, suggesting that genuine curiosity and enjoyment can drive greater involvement in IDLE.

Another important motivator is the learner’s “international posture,” which refers to how they see themselves fitting into the global community (Yashima, Reference Yashima2002; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Ma, Bao and Liu2023). Learners with a strong international posture recognize that English is a global lingua franca and view proficiency in the language as a gateway to connecting with people worldwide. This perspective encourages them to engage with IDLE to enhance their ability to communicate across cultures, participate in international dialogues, and access global opportunities (Dizon, Reference Dizon2023; Lee & Lu, Reference Lee and Lu2023).

Learners’ engagement with IDLE is strongly influenced by how beneficial they perceive it to be for achieving their own educational and career ambitions (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2022; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2023; Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). When students believe that IDLE can help them communicate more effectively, excel academically, or advance professionally, they become more willing to invest their time and effort. This practical recognition of IDLE’s value not only strengthens their motivation but also reinforces their commitment. The positive impact of IDLE is not limited to students alone; preservice English teachers benefit as well. Kusuma et al. (Reference Kusuma, Dewi and Paramartha2024) found that when EFL preservice teachers had rewarding experiences with IDLE in high school or through interactions with peers, they gained a deeper appreciation for its advantages and developed more positive attitudes toward its use. These encouraging attitudes could inspire future EFL teachers to incorporate IDLE into their own classrooms, potentially creating a lasting ripple effect on the students they teach. However, to fully understand the long-term impact of this process, further empirical research is needed.

The satisfaction of basic psychological needs, as outlined in self-determination theory, is also crucial in motivating learners (Deci & Ryan, Reference Deci and Ryan1985). This theory emphasizes three fundamental needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Fathali & Okada, Reference Fathali and Okada2018; Sockett & Toffoli, Reference Sockett, Toffoli, Dressman and Sadler2020; Toffoli, Reference Toffoli2020; Jeon, Reference Jeon2022; Zadorozhnyy & Lee, Reference Zadorozhnyy and Lee2024). Learners who feel autonomous experience a sense of control over their learning choices and paths. Those who feel competent believe in their ability to succeed and master the language. The sense of relatedness refers to feeling connected with others – peers, instructors, or online communities – which can provide support and encouragement. When these needs are met, learners are more intrinsically motivated and actively engaged in IDLE. For example, learners who are confident in their speaking skills and possess strong self-efficacy – the belief in their ability to achieve goals – tend to participate more actively and effectively in digital language learning environments (Bandura, Reference Bandura1997; Barkati et al., Reference Barkati, Kiyanfar, Noughabi and Ershadi2024). This confidence allows them to tackle challenging tasks, engage in conversations without excessive fear of making mistakes, and persist despite obstacles.

Additional personal traits such as grit, resilience, and the ability to achieve a state of “flow” also play significant roles (Csikszentmihalyi, Reference Csikszentmihalyi2014; Barkati et al., Reference Barkati, Kiyanfar, Noughabi and Ershadi2024; Gao et al., Reference Gao, Wang and Reynolds2025). Grit involves perseverance and passion for long-term goals, enabling learners to stay committed to language learning even when faced with difficulties (Liu & Lee, Reference Liu, Lee, Toffoli, Sockett and Kusyk2023). Grit allows them to recover quickly from setbacks, maintaining their motivation and drive (Duckworth, Reference Duckworth2017). Achieving a state of flow – a deep immersion and enjoyment in an activity – enhances learning outcomes by fostering intense focus and a sense of fulfillment during IDLE activities (Csikszentmihalyi, Reference Csikszentmihalyi2014; Gao et al., Reference Gao, Wang and Reynolds2025).

Digital literacy is a critical factor influencing learners’ engagement with IDLE (Barkati et al., Reference Barkati, Kiyanfar, Noughabi and Ershadi2024; Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). Learners must possess the necessary skills to navigate digital platforms, utilize online resources, and communicate effectively in virtual environments. Proficiency in using technology enables them to access a wide array of learning materials, participate in online communities, and tailor their learning experiences to their individual needs. Without sufficient digital literacy, learners may struggle to engage fully with IDLE, hindering their ability to benefit from its offerings (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b).

Pride can be seen as a self-aware emotion that arises from achieving something meaningful, rooted in one’s own sense of accomplishment (Buechner et al., Reference Buechner, Pekrun and Lichtenfeld2018). It has two main forms: pride in personal achievement and pride from comparing oneself favorably to others. Zou et al. (Reference Zou, Liu, Li and Chen2025) discovered that feeling proud of one’s second language skills is closely connected to greater involvement in IDLE activities. This connection suggests that experiencing L2 pride gives students valuable chances to display their English abilities, which can boost their confidence and inspire them to engage even more in digital English learning beyond the classroom.

Guo et al. (Reference Guo, Yao and Lee2025) looked at how the ways students manage their emotions – specifically, through cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression – relate to different styles of IDLE among 829 participants. Cognitive reappraisal is when someone tries to think about a situation differently to change how they feel about it – for example, seeing a tough assignment as a learning opportunity rather than a setback. Expressive suppression, on the other hand, is when someone tries to hide or hold back their emotional reactions, like keeping a straight face even when frustrated. The study found that students who regularly used cognitive reappraisal were much more likely to be in the “Active” group of IDLE learners, meaning they engaged more often and with greater enthusiasm in informal English learning online. In contrast, those who used expressive suppression less frequently tended to be “Passive” learners, participating less actively. In short, students who reframe their feelings in a positive way are more engaged in IDLE, while those who bottle up their emotions are more likely to take a backseat in their learning.

External Factors

• Maternal scaffolding (Soyoof et al., Reference Soyoof, Reynolds, Neumann and Vazquez-Calvo2024)

• Pedagogy (Peng et al., Reference Peng, Akhter and Hashemifardnia2025)

• Authentic English use experience (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2022; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2023)

• Educational systems (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b)

External factors encompass the social and environmental conditions that shape how learners participate in IDLE. These elements, existing outside the individual, play a significant role in influencing learners’ engagement with informal digital language learning.

Parental support is a significant factor shaping learners’ engagement in IDLE activities (Soyoof et al., Reference Soyoof, Reynolds, Neumann and Vazquez-Calvo2024). When parents actively encourage and assist their children’s language learning, they can create meaningful opportunities for practice and growth (Tao & Xu, Reference Tao and Xu2022; Seo, Reference Seo2025). This support may involve providing technological resources – such as computers, tablets, or smartphones with internet access – and recommending educational websites, language learning apps, or online courses (Seo, Reference Seo2025). For example, parents might introduce interactive English-learning games or encourage watching educational videos in English. However, it is important to acknowledge that not all parents have the same level of resources or digital literacy, which can affect the consistency and effectiveness of their involvement (Guo & Lee, Reference Guo and Lee2023). Additionally, while parental encouragement can be highly beneficial, excessive pressure or unrealistic expectations may sometimes lead to anxiety or reduced motivation for learners (Park, Reference 71Park2009).

With respect to teacher pedagogy, Peng et al. (Reference Peng, Akhter and Hashemifardnia2025) carried out a study with seventy Iranian female EFL learners to explore the impact of innovative teaching methods. Over eight weeks, participants attended seventeen sessions of podcast-enhanced speaking classes, each lasting 90 minutes and held twice a week. The podcasts delved into a wide range of topics, from technology and culture to global issues. To encourage learning beyond the classroom, students were also assigned supplementary activities – reviewing podcasts, joining online discussion forums, and keeping reflective journals – to deepen their experience with IDLE. In this study, IDLE was assessed broadly, covering form-focused, game-based, receptive, and productive activities. The results showed that students who participated in the podcast-integrated speaking sessions demonstrated significantly higher engagement in IDLE than those in the control group.

Exposure to authentic English greatly enhances learners’ motivation and engagement (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2022; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2023). Interacting with native speakers provides practical experience that helps learners grasp nuances, idioms, and cultural references inherent in everyday communication. This interaction might occur through language exchange programs, online chat platforms, or international social networks (Lee, Reference Lee2022a). Additionally, consuming real-world English content, such as movies, television shows, music, podcasts, and books, immerses learners in the language in a natural and engaging way. For example, a student who regularly watches English-language films or participates in online communities centered around topics of interest may develop stronger language skills and increased confidence in using English. This authentic exposure makes learning more relevant and enjoyable, reinforcing their commitment to improving their proficiency (Zhang & Liu, Reference Zhang and Liu2022; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2023).

Educational institutions, including schools and universities, play a crucial role in either promoting or hindering IDLE participation (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b). When these institutions integrate digital tools into their teaching, they provide students with additional avenues to engage with the language outside traditional classroom settings. For instance, a school might incorporate language learning apps into the curriculum, offer access to online English resources, or encourage the use of educational technology in assignments. Teachers can provide guidance on effective practices, such as how to utilize online forums for language exchange or how to critically evaluate digital content. By creating environments that promote independent learning, educational institutions empower students to take control of their language development and explore resources that align with their interests and learning styles. Conversely, if schools neglect to provide technological access or discourage the use of digital platforms, they may unintentionally block students from benefiting from IDLE opportunities (Rezai et al., Reference Rezai, Soyoof and Reynolds2024b).

In the next section, we will delve into practical ways to embed IDLE into educational systems, exploring concrete steps and initiatives that can ensure its long-term success. This includes discussing policy recommendations, curriculum integration, teacher training, and community involvement to create a holistic approach that benefits learners at all levels.

The Teacher-Supported IDLE Continuum Model

The Teacher-Supported IDLE Continuum Model marks a notable step forward from Sundqvist and Sylvén’s (Reference Sundqvist and Sylvén2016) influential differentiation between formal and informal language learning. While their foundational research effectively captures the environments and activities – referred to as “extramural” – that foster meaningful informal language development, it does not provide explicit guidance on how educators can systematically cultivate the learner autonomy required for such engagement. Addressing this gap, the Teacher-Supported IDLE Continuum transforms IDLE’s descriptive landscape into a practical, pedagogically grounded model. Through the integration of the Gradual Release of Responsibility framework (Pearson & Gallagher, Reference Pearson and Gallagher1983), this model offers educators a clear, structured trajectory to guide learners from reliance on teacher direction toward independent, self-motivated language learning.

Liu et al. (Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024), building on this conceptual foundation and leveraging strong collaborations between schools and universities (Sato et al., Reference Sato, Loewen and Pastushenkov2022), have articulated a model that artfully bridges theory and classroom application. Unlike methods that simply introduce learners to digital language resources in hopes of spontaneous growth, the Teacher-Supported IDLE Continuum deliberately scaffolds learner autonomy, ensuring students progressively take ownership of their language journey.

The model is structured into four sequential stages, each aligning with the dimensions of the IDLE model (Liu et al., Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024; see Figure 5):

• Stage 1 (Teacher-Controlled): Learning is firmly anchored in traditional classroom dynamics, with teachers curating all materials and directing instruction.

• Stage 2 (Joint Responsibility): Responsibility is shared, as learning extends beyond the classroom through collaborative, structured activities that lay the foundations for student autonomy.

• Stage 3 (Low Learner-Driven): Students begin to exercise agency, engaging in semi-structured digital activities that encourage exploration and independent decision-making, thus realizing “weak extramural IDLE.”

• Stage 4 (High Learner-Driven): Learners achieve full autonomy, leveraging digital resources to pursue self-determined language objectives, embodying “strong extramural IDLE.”

Figure 5 IDLE Continuum Model Pathway

A central strength of the continuum is its adaptability across varied educational contexts. Teachers may select the most appropriate entry stage based on their professional judgment and the realities of their institutional settings. For example, educators in innovative or international schools, endowed with greater autonomy and resources, might initiate the process at Stage 3 and advance quickly to Stage 4. Conversely, teachers in more traditional, resource-limited, or hierarchical school settings may choose to begin at Stage 1, gradually transitioning through subsequent stages and selectively incorporating higher stages as conditions permit.

As learners advance through these stages, the teacher’s role evolves accordingly:

• Stage 1: Teachers act as planners and direct instructors, delivering highly structured lessons.

• Stages 2 and 3: The teacher transitions to a facilitator, guiding students through authentic, student-centered digital tasks and fostering critical engagement.

• Stage 4: The teacher becomes a mentor, supporting students’ reflective practices and helping them continuously refine their strategies for sustained, independent learning.

This phased approach ensures that students are not abruptly thrust into self-directed learning; instead, responsibility is transferred gradually, with continuous support provided as learners build the skills and confidence essential for autonomous, lifelong language learning (Lee, Reference Lee2024). Evidence from Liu et al. (Reference Liu, Zhao and Yang2024) attests to the model’s effectiveness: in a twelve-week intervention involving ninety Chinese EFL university students, those who experienced the full teacher-supported IDLE continuum demonstrated the greatest improvements in willingness to communicate in English, outperforming their peers in both traditional and unsupervised IDLE groups. These findings underscore the indispensable role of educators in scaffolding the path toward learner independence.

In summary, while the IDLE continuum builds on earlier distinctions between extracurricular and extramural learning (Sundqvist, Reference Sundqvist2009; Sundqvist & Sylvén, Reference Sundqvist and Sylvén2016), its contribution is not simply terminological. Rather than presenting parallel categories, the continuum conceptualizes learners’ engagement as a developmental trajectory – moving from teacher-supported, structured activities (“weak IDLE”) toward fully independent, passion-driven practices (“strong IDLE”). This framing highlights IDLE as a dynamic process rather than a fixed state, and it positions the continuum as both a descriptive tool and a practical tool for guiding transitions across contexts. In this sense, the model is distinctive in linking empirical evidence of learner agency with broader questions of educational and social impact.

Care: Empathy in Action

At the heart of the model is Care, which mirrors the “empathy” phase in design thinking (Brown, Reference Brown2009). This stage is about deeply understanding the unique challenges and needs of beneficiaries (e.g., learners). It goes beyond a simple survey – it demands time, presence, and trust-building (Razzouk & Shute, Reference Razzouk and Shute2012). Educators must observe, engage, and listen actively to uncover the real, lived experiences of students (Gallagher & Thordarson, Reference Gallagher and Thordarson2018). These insights must then be translated into clear, actionable goals. If the problem remains vague or overly complex, it becomes difficult to design meaningful solutions or measure success (Brown, Reference Brown2009; Lee, Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025).

Innovation: Purposeful and Contextual

Once the needs are clearly defined, Innovation takes center stage (Rogers, Reference Rogers2003). This phase introduces new methods or technologies tailored to address the identified challenges (Fagerberg et al., Reference Fagerberg, Mowery and Nelson2005). Crucially, innovation thrives when context experts – such as frontline teachers – are involved (Elliott, Reference Elliott1991; Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025). Their deep understanding of the local environment (e.g., tech infrastructure and school culture) and commitment to change are vital (Hockly, Reference Hockly2014). These experts not only help implement the innovation but also connect researchers with key stakeholders and provide logistical support (Reinders et al., Reference Reinders, Park and Lee2025). When universities and schools collaborate, they create a powerful synergy: teachers bring real-world insights and support, while researchers contribute theory, design, and tools to evaluate and refine interventions (Hargreaves & Fullan, Reference Hargreaves and Fullan2012; Sato et al., Reference Sato, Loewen and Pastushenkov2022).

Sustainability: Lasting Impact

The final pillar, Sustainability, ensures that innovations endure and evolve (Hargreaves & Fullan, Reference Hargreaves and Fullan2012). It involves rigorous impact assessment, diverse feedback collection, and strategic scaling (Fowler et al., Reference Fowler, Coffey and Dixon-Fowler2019). Unlike academic projects that rely on limited data, social impact initiatives require a rich mix of evidence – testimonials, classroom observations, and more – to truly gauge effectiveness (Research Excellence Framework, 2021; Smit & Hessels, Reference Smit and Hessels2021). Ongoing monitoring helps determine which partnerships to continue and where to focus efforts. This selective approach is key to tracking long-term benefits and refining strategies (Hockly, Reference Hockly2014).

Ultimately, the CIS model aims to transform language education through empathetic, collaborative, and sustainable practices (Fullan, Reference Fullan2007; Lee, Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025). This paradigm shift invites scholars to collaborate more closely with practitioners, policymakers, and the communities they aim to serve (Sato et al., Reference Sato, Loewen and Pastushenkov2022; Sato & Cárcamo, Reference Sato and Cárcamo2024). By doing so, they can develop research initiatives that are grounded in real-world contexts, tailored to specific needs, and designed for long-term viability.

Care Phase

Indonesian learners face persistent challenges in acquiring English as a foreign language, particularly in under-resourced settings (Zein, Reference Zein2017; Lee, Reference Lee2024). Outside formal education, opportunities for authentic language use are scarce, and socioeconomic constraints further limit access to supplementary learning resources (Lamb, Reference Lamb2004, Reference Lamb2007, Reference Lamb2013; Lee & Drajati, Reference Lee and Drajati2019b; Lee, Reference Lee2024). With an average household income of approximately Indonesian Rupiah 4.2 million (USD 280) per month, many families are unable to afford private tutoring or extracurricular language programs, resulting in restricted exposure to English beyond the classroom (UNICEF, 2020).

Fieldwork conducted in 2024 revealed that students from low-income backgrounds rarely engaged in speaking English, perpetuating cycles of low self-confidence and impeding the development of communicative fluency (Lee, Reference Lee2024). A comprehensive survey of 2,830 students across more than 20 schools substantiated these observations (Lee, Reference Lee2024). The data indicated that learners spent less than 1 hour per month on fourteen out of sixteen English-related activities, with productive skills – speaking and writing – receiving minimal attention. In contrast, receptive activities such as listening to English music (69 minutes/month) and using language-learning applications (63 minutes/month) were more prevalent. Speaking and writing practice averaged under 20 minutes per month, highlighting a critical gap in skill acquisition (Lee, Reference Lee2024). These findings underscored the urgent need for innovative, scalable, and cost-effective interventions to address the lack of practice and support meaningful improvements in English proficiency (Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025).

From 2020 to 2024, our research team – including Lee, colleagues, graduate students, and Indonesian university partners – laid the groundwork to combat these challenges through strategic partnerships (Sulistyawati, Reference Sulistyawati2025). Collaborations with TEFLIN – The Indonesian Association for English Language Teaching – and Universitas Sebelas Maret (UNS) led to the creation of platforms that trained over 5,500 educators in cutting-edge technology and IDLE methodologies. These initiatives equipped teachers to incorporate IDLE strategies into their classrooms effectively (Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025; Sulistyawati, Reference Sulistyawati2025). In 2024, a renewed five-year Memorandum of Understanding with UNS solidified this ongoing partnership.

Building on similar research into the challenges faced by EFL teachers in Hong Kong (Zadorozhnyy et al., Reference Zadorozhnyy, Lai and Lee2025), a pilot study was conducted in March 2024 involving fifty-one Indonesian teachers from over forty schools. The initial results highlighted key obstacles to adopting IDLE techniques, such as a lack of familiarity with the pedagogy (21.3%), challenges in motivating disengaged students (22.2%), and systemic issues such as financial struggles at home (11.1%) and insufficient school infrastructure (10.2%). By grounding the intervention design in the real experiences of Indonesian educators and learners, the Care phase ensured that the solutions developed were not only academically robust but also deeply relevant and sustainable within their specific contexts. This approach set the stage for targeted innovations tailored to meet the urgent needs of underserved communities (Brown, Reference Brown2009).

Innovation Phase

To expand the reach and deepen the educational impact of the IDLE initiative, a “train-the-trainer” approach was implemented, allowing expertise to spread systematically across the education sector (Marks et al., Reference Marks, Sisirak and Chang2013; Nexø et al., Reference Nexø, Kingod, Eshøj, Kjærulff, Nørgaard and Andersen2024). In the initial phase, fifteen master educators underwent intensive training in IDLE methodologies (Lee, Reference Lee2024). These master educators then mentored twenty-five frontline teachers from twenty-two schools, who integrated IDLE strategies into their classrooms. Between September and November 2024, this rollout directly impacted 2,820 students (Sulistyawati, Reference Sulistyawati2025). By embedding IDLE activities into everyday lessons, teachers provided students with consistent opportunities to engage with English, significantly increasing language exposure and practice (Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025).

The intervention yielded remarkable results (Lee et al., Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025). Across participating schools, students demonstrated a substantial increase in English engagement. Monthly time spent on receptive skills such as listening and reading jumped from 261 minutes to 510 minutes. Even more striking, time dedicated to productive skills such as speaking and writing surged by 143%, climbing from 234 to 570 minutes per month. Students also experienced emotional and psychological benefits: enjoyment scores rose from 3.67 to 4.50 (out of 5), emotional well-being improved from 3.55 to 4.12, and feelings of boredom decreased from 2.48 to 2.12. Furthermore, communicative confidence and competence advanced significantly, with willingness to speak English increasing from 3.25 to 3.72 and overall perceived communication proficiency improving by over 10 points (from 40.3 to 50.6 out of 100).

These outcomes underscore the effectiveness of IDLE in fostering a positive emotional environment, breaking down psychological barriers, promoting learner autonomy, and developing essential communication skills. The success of the program spurred institutional adoption, with twelve schools officially integrating IDLE into their English curricula, making it a core component of daily instruction (Sulistyawati, Reference Sulistyawati2025).

Sustainability Phase

Between January and May 2025, the IDLE initiative entered its consolidation phase, focusing on eight schools and seven highly committed educators. What began in spring 2024 with training over 100 teachers was narrowed down to 25 by summer 2024 when the program launched, and ultimately to a core group of 7 educators who demonstrated unwavering dedication and were strongly supported by their schools and leadership. This phase marked the introduction of a rigorous experimental research design – developed in collaboration with Indonesian partners – that included control groups to generate robust evidence of the program’s effectiveness. While data analysis is still ongoing, preliminary findings offer valuable insights into the initiative’s sustainability.

The selection of the seven teachers was a deliberate process shaped by real-world constraints. Initially, around 100 teachers expressed interest in the program. However, challenges such as personal health, limited access to technology, and administrative workloads led many to withdraw (Ruspini, Reference Ruspini2002). The remaining seven educators stood out for their high commitment, building strong professional relationships with the research team through ongoing training, informal conversations, and school-based observations. This trust-based collaboration has set the stage for a longitudinal study to assess the program’s sustained impact (Melnyk & Morrison-Beedy, Reference Melnyk and Morrison-Beedy2012).

To enhance the methodological rigor, the team adopted Experience Sampling Method (ESM), allowing real-time data collection on students’ engagement with IDLE activities (Arndt et al., Reference Arndt, Granfeldt and Gullberg2023; Lee & Chiu, Reference Lee and Chiu2024). This approach provided more reliable and detailed insights. Along with pre- and post-surveys, the research team gathered diverse evidence, including classroom observations, teacher interviews, testimonials, and local media coverage. This multidimensional data offers a comprehensive view of the program’s social impact (Sulistyawati, Reference Sulistyawati2025), strengthening the case for scaling IDLE to other regions in Indonesia and similar contexts in the Global South (Research Excellence Framework, 2021).

Capacity building remained central to the initiative. Graduate students from Indonesia and Hong Kong participated actively in the project, gaining hands-on experience in community-based research and collaborative methodologies (Lee, Reference Lee2024). This involvement not only enhanced their academic and research skills but also empowered them to lead future social impact projects. For instance, one doctoral student is currently writing her dissertation based on her work with the initiative. Upon graduation, she is expected to lead similar projects, amplifying the program’s influence and fostering a ripple effect among educators, researchers, and emerging scholars.

A significant lesson learned during this phase was the strategic use of technology. Initially, the team partnered with a commercial AI provider to assess students’ speaking fluency. While this generated excitement at first, both teachers and students faced challenges with the product’s complexity and inaccuracies. For researchers, the high cost of the tool was another barrier. These experiences highlighted the need for affordable, user-friendly, and contextually appropriate technologies (Hockly, Reference Hockly2014; Lee, Reference Lee2024). As a result, the team is now developing AI-mediated IDLE using free, open-source tools in collaboration with an ed-tech company based in the Global South, ensuring greater accessibility and alignment with local needs (Kim, Reference Kim2009).

Institutional engagement played a crucial role in reinforcing the program’s sustainability (Melnyk and Morrison-Beedy, Reference Melnyk and Morrison-Beedy2012). A dedicated forum brought together key stakeholders, including a senior advisor to the Indonesian Minister of Education, the president of TEFLIN, and representatives from an NGO school network (Sulistyawati, Reference Sulistyawati2025). These discussions explored pathways for policy integration, laying the groundwork for governmental endorsement and the potential inclusion of IDLE in the national curriculum. Institutional support not only validates the program’s effectiveness but also paves the way for systemic reform in English language education across Indonesia (Lee, Reference Lee, Nesi and Milin2025).