How do you conduct a sociolinguistic interview? How do you talk to strangers, your targeted sample of individuals who you do not know yet? This chapter will discuss ways and means of mitigating the observer’s paradox, enabling the analyst to obtain natural speech data.
In the last two chapters, I have focused on setting up a research project, entering the speech community, and fieldwork ethics. Now I turn to the question of how to collect sociolinguistic ‘gold’, your data.
The ‘Interview’
The fundamental tool for recording conversation in variation analysis is referred to as the ‘sociolinguistic interview’. In fact, this is a misnomer; a sociolinguistic interview should be anything but an ‘interview’. It is more like ‘a trip down memory lane’ (Tagliamonte, Reference Tagliamonte2016a). Many of these so-called ‘techniques’ have been passed down from the earliest studies in sociolinguistic fieldwork between the 1960s and into the 1980s. As times evolve, cultures change and social conventions differ from one time to another and one community to another. What worked in Harlem, Belfast, or Norwich in the 1960s probably did not work in London parks (Cheshire, Reference Cheshire1982) or the East Anglia Fens (Britain, Reference Britain2002), and researchers have made adjustments all along.
In the 1980s and 1990s fieldwork techniques were also refined and changed to suit the nature of studies, code-switching in Ottawa (Poplack, Reference Poplack, Wande, Anward, Nordberg, Steensland and Thelander1987), sound change and ethnolects in London (Kerswill et al., Reference Kerswill, Torgersen and Fox2008; Cheshire et al., Reference 338Cheshire, Kerswill, Fox and Torgersen2011), remnant dialects in Ocracke (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, Reference Wolfram and Schilling-Estes1995), schools (Mougeon & Beniak, Reference Mougeon, Beniak and Dorian1989; Corrigan, Reference Corrigan2020), and many more. Most publications devote at least some time to discussing their interview methods and the adjustments they made to interview questions and techniques.
Since the turn of the twenty-first century, greater attention to ethnicity, gender, and social meaning has developed in data collection, and the unprecedented COVID pandemic has propelled data collection methods into new domains. New and varied approaches to interviewing, questioning techniques, and other practical matters of data collection have emerged (e.g. Gardner, Reference Gardner2022; Kara et al., Reference Kara, Khan and Zimman2022; Childs & Cole, Reference Childs and Cole2023; Sneller & Barnhardt, Reference Sneller and Barnhardt2023). Community-engaged research and heightened sensitivity to community needs has also come to the forefront. For example, direct questions are culturally inappropriate in many cultures (e.g. Rodríguez Louro & Collard Reference Rodríguez Louro and Collard2021). When it comes to the sociolinguistic interview, the most enduring rule of thumb is sensitivity to the cultural ecology, the local situation, and the human being across from you or on the ZOOM call.
Modules
Labov (Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:32) defines the sociolinguistic interview as ‘a well-developed strategy’ that is defined by several goals. The most important of these is to record at least one hour of speech and obtain demographic data for each individual within one’s sample design. In Labov’s (Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:33–34) early formulation of the sociolinguistic interview, the interview comprised a series of hierarchically structured sets of questions, what he refers to as conversational modules (Labov, Reference Labov1973b).
A typical module is shown in (1). In this case, the topic is school. The main questions are followed by indented follow-up questions.
(1) School
Do [Did] you go to one of the schools in this neighbourhood?
How far is it from your house?
Do [Did] you have any teachers that are really tough?
What would they yell at a kid for?
What was the worst thing you ever saw a teacher do to a kid?
Or a kid do to a teacher?
Did you ever get blamed [punished] for something you didn’t do?
Did you ever have a teacher that was really unfair?
Was there ever a teacher you liked?
Did you ever pass notes in school?
Did a teacher ever catch you passing notes?
What happened?
What kind of group did you have in your school?
Did you have jocks?
Nerds? Goths? Thugs?
What was your group like?
What sorts of clothes did they wear? Haircuts? Earrings?
Could a guy [girl] from one group go out with someone from another?
Notice that the questions within the conversational module are strategically ordered. The goal is to progress from general, impersonal, non-specific topics and questions to more specific, personal ones.
Labov was precise in describing optimal techniques for the sociolinguistic interview. ‘Optimal’ means those questions which elicit ‘narratives of personal experience’, stories that people tell you about things that happened to them in their lives (Labov & Sankoff, G., Reference Labov and Sankoff2023). Certain questions were once thought to elicit notable reminiscences, for example, Labov’s danger of death question or the war question from van Hout’s Netherland project. In the right circumstances, these are highly effective for putting individuals into storytelling mode, and they have the added value of giving voice to people’s innermost experiences and bringing catharsis to their lives. However, subsequent projects have veered away from these questions because many researchers argue that they are not appropriate in contemporary situations.
In my fieldwork in York, England, among University of York students, some of the best questions were innocuous such as ‘What’s with the ducks?’ In Northern Ontario, it was: ‘Have you ever had a run-in with a bear?’ In Toronto in 2003, ‘Where were you when the lights went out’, and in the late 2010s: ’Where were you when the Raptors won the NBA championship?’ (Derek Denis, personal communication, 21 December 2023). None of these questions would likely work as well in other places.
How to ask questions that are the most useful for eliciting the vernacular depend on the age of the individual and on the type of community. It’s very important for the fieldworker to gauge the appropriateness of any question for the situation they are in. Any question, however benign, can trigger an emotional response or come across as offensive, so it is important to anticipate what might instigate an individual’s distress. Sometimes it is impossible to know. I once innocuously asked an interviewee ‘How did you meet your husband?’ Unfortunately, that question turned the woman instantaneously hostile, and I had to end the interview. Another time, as I left someone’s home after a monotonous question-and-answer interview, the man stood on the doorstep and vividly told me the story about the night his wife died.
If the fieldworker can find the topic that the individual wants to talk about, this is the best situation. In deep reverie, individuals produce vivid recollections rich in vernacular features (Labov, Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:34; Reference Labov2013). The value of recounting personal reflections also has a significant add-on value – catharsis. Many people come away from a sociolinguistic interview with a feeling of well-being. At the end of a sociolinguistic interview with Ralph Fasold on his contributions to the field of variation analysis, Ralph said: ‘I can only hope that some people we interview for sociolinguistic interviews enjoy it as much as this. I think sometimes they do.’ I agree with Ralph. I honestly think they do. For the interviewee, having someone who is interested in what they are saying – all that reminiscing and remembering and recounting of tales – is a highly enjoyable and indeed a healing experience (Tagliamonte, Reference Tagliamonte2016a:105). Indeed, considerable research in other disciplines supports the psychological benefits of storytelling. When people vocalise their thoughts, it helps them to manage times of emotional and psychological distress (see e.g. Brockington et al., Reference Brockington, Moreira, Buso, da Silva, Altszyler, Fischer and Moll2021; Fang et al., Reference Fang, Comery and Carr2023). Fieldwork also has similar benefits for the interviewer (e.g. Tagliamonte, Reference Tagliamonte2016a:89).
A personal observation from the long history of talking to people in variationist sociolinguistics is the singular opportunity it offers to step outside one’s own world and one’s own perspective. Asking questions (appropriately and with sensitivity) enables ordinary people to recount the extraordinary events of their lives. It is a golden opportunity to honestly share an experience that has been central in their lives, and we analysts can learn much from them in opening ourselves up to hearing their stories.
The template for the sociolinguistic interview begins with questions relating to demography, community, neighbourhood, and so on and progresses into more personal modules such as dating, family traditions, hobbies.
Questions which implicate the individual in events in which they participated are ideal for tapping the vernacular. Asking an individual where they were, or what they were doing, at a momentous time in history is an excellent way to tap personal stories, (2).
(2)
a. In Nova Scotia, Canada (1991) Do you remember the Halifax Explosion? (1917) The sinking of the Titanic? (1912) Did you ever get caught out in a storm? (fishing stories) b. In York, England (1997) Where were you the night the Minster [York Minster Cathedral] burned? (1984) Do you remember the York blitz? (Second World War) c. In Toronto, Canada (2003) Do you remember Hurricane Hazel? (major hurricane, 1957) Where were you when the lights went out? (blackout, 2003)
With any conversational module, begin with exploratory queries. This enables you to assess whether the interviewee is interested and/or willing to talk about the particular subject of that module. If the individual shows an interest in the subject, continue to the more detailed questions. If not, go on to the next module until you find something that the individual enjoys talking about. If the existing modules do not stimulate an individual’s interest, improvise! It perhaps goes without saying that a sociolinguistic interview need not comprise a rigid pre-set order of topics (Eckert, Reference Eckert2000:80).
Ideally, the interviewer plays a part in the conversation which approaches that of a participant in an informal exchange: (1) volunteer experience, (2) respond to new issues, and (3) follow the subject’s main interests and ideas wherever they go. It is important not to talk too much! The sociolinguistic interview is considered less ideal if the interviewer does all the talking or if the individual being interviewed does no more than answer questions.
If you include a module on language, always put it at the very end of the interview when your individual has exhausted the more personal topics.
Adapting Your Interview
Some questions apply across just about all speech communities, (3).
(3)
a. Where did you grow up? b. What kinds of games did you play when you were a kid? c. Who is your best friend?
Other questions will be community specific. These must be modified to suit the population under investigation. Many will have sensitivities that require you to pose questions in novel ways, (4–6). Indeed, every research project requires modifications to the sociolinguistic interview along social and cultural lines.
Questioning Techniques
Questioning techniques are both ubiquitous and highly local. Here are some examples specifically geared to certain social groups, (4–6).
(4) Interviewees with Turkish ancestry
One of my favourite things … is the Nasreddin Hoca stories. Do you know any of them? Tell me one?
(5) Interviewees living in York, UK
a. Have you ever seen Morris dancing? Do you do it? (local customs) b. Have you ever done the Micklegate Run? (pub crawl)
(6)
Interviewees with Hindi ancestry What were you told about flying kites on the roofs of houses? What happened when you first ‘cut’ another kite?
You may even want to tailor your style to suit the social characteristics of your interviewee, (7).
a. A teenager in 2003
So, like have you ever had like a really freaky experience?
b. A senior citizen in 2003
What kinds of dances/music/hobbies were popular when you were young?
If you modify your way of speaking in an interview, it must sound natural! For example, an 80-year-old interviewer would sound silly asking a question like the one in (7a). The ideal interview speech style is your own vernacular or one you are eminently familiar with.
Wording Questions
Avoid yes/no questions. Instead, try those in (8).
(8)
a. Interviewer: Tell me about the neighbourhood you grew up in. b. Interviewer: What was your best holiday? c. Interviewer: What do you like best about living in [insert relevant place]?
Of course, yes/no questions are often unavoidable. A critical questioning technique is to use add-ons to questions, (9b–d).
a. Did you ever get blamed for something you never did?
b. Really? What happened?
c. Tell me about it …
d. And then what happened?
Many questions can be reworded to become much more successful. Instead of asking questions directly, use indirect means. For example, instead of saying, ‘Is it true that …’, it’s better to say, ‘I’ve heard that … Some people say that … I’ve noticed that …’, and so on. Instead of saying, ‘Do you like/hate X?’, it’s better to say, ‘What do you like/hate about X?’ Ask people how they felt about things, what they thought about things. People tend to want to talk in generalities with tense/aspect phenomena of iteration and habituality. If that happens, ask them to give an example or to tell you about one time they did something, heard about something: for example, Do you remember a time when …?
Two good examples of wording questions are the way you might ask someone’s age and their education. When it comes to someone’s age, it is much more tactful to ask them their year of birth. If they are positive about their age, they will tell you themselves how old they are. If they do not, do not ask. You will be able to calculate their age later. Regarding questions on education, it is better to acknowledge that some people have not had much opportunity to go to school. In such cases, it is more tactful to say, ‘Did you have a chance to go to school?’ than to say, ‘How much education did you get?’ or ‘How far did you get in school?’
Other methods for eliciting demographic information include a questionnaire at the beginning of an interview (e.g. Gardner, Reference Gardner2016; Childs & Cole, Reference Childs and Cole2023), at the end or as a follow-up. In a recent study in a Toronto High School, we used a questionnaire to document the complex ethnic and gender characteristics of the teenagers (Tagliamonte, Reference Tagliamonte2019–2020).
Often people respond better to questions that are worded in terms of other people and do not specifically implicate them. For example, instead of saying, ‘Were your schooldays the best years of your life? (which is also a yes/no question), it is often better to say something like, ‘A lot of people say that their schooldays were the best years of their lives. What do you think? Was it like that for you?’
Neutralise any questions that impose a value judgement. This means avoiding questions that begin with ‘Do you believe in X?’ Instead, it is better to say, ‘A lot of people I know believe in X. What do you think?’ or ‘A lot of people around here have experienced X. How about you?’, ‘I knew someone once who X. Have you ever heard about something like that?’, and so on. Wording questions in this way gives your interviewee ‘the OK’ to recount experiences from their history.
Another valuable technique in wording questions is to ask in the context of providing an example. This type of questioning has the added advantage of ‘jogging’ the interviewee’s memory, (10).
(10)
a. You know that game you play where someone counts and everyone else hides? How’d you play that? b. You know that game with the rhyme ‘Eeny, meeny … ’. How does it go?
Avoid questions that are vague. Ask a specific question or prompt the interviewee by giving an example, (11).
(11)
a. Interviewer: What sort of adventures did you used to have like, in the fields …? b. Interviewer: You know, people often say, ‘Oh schooldays are the best days of your life.’
In the same vein, try to pick up on local culture to find the best questions, (12).
(12)
a. Wartime in York Interviewer: A lot of people have said that after the- after the end of the war a lot of the community spirit got lost in York … (YRK, Interviewer 1) b. Walking Interviewer: I saw that you had the, um, James Herriot Yorkshire book … do you do a lot of walking? (YORK, Interviewer 1)
Select Appropriate Questions
Some question types, such as those dealing with work, business, and human rights, will tend to elicit speech in the formal range. Although political, philosophical, opinion-oriented modules contain questions that might be posed in a normal interview situation, they are not right for the sociolinguistic data gathering situation. Of course, interviewees may bring up these topics on their own. In such a situation, it is best to steer the conversation back to the purpose of the interview, the person’s own lived experiences in their community rather than their ideas about states of affairs.
Remember to include the tried-and-true questions from earlier interviews in the same community or group. Questions that worked well with other individuals in the community are likely to work well with the next interviewee.
Keep in mind that you are not asking questions to get information; you are asking questions that elicit the life stories of your target population and in so doing, natural, spontaneous speech. The more culture-specific, familiar, and personalised the questions are (without being overly imposing), the better. Perhaps the most (in)famous interview in my collection is a two-hour discussion with an elderly man about how to breed slugs. Listen to what your interviewees say, then phrase questions that tap into what they are observably interested in (13).
(13)
a. Interviewer: So have you always had dogs in your family? (YRK, sgeorge, woman, 22) (when there is a dog present) b. But, I thought the Beatles were wonderful. Interviewer: Right, did you ever go and see them in concert? (YRK, ggreen, woman, 45)
Some questions are too personal. You should not ask questions like, ‘What was your first sexual experience like?’ or ‘How much money do you make?’ This information may be offered, but such prying questions about money and someone’s personal affairs are not appropriate. As a rule, do not ask questions dealing with serious issues such as violence, rape, incest, and so on. You may get into something you do not have the training to handle. Leave this for the social workers and psychiatrists. Nevertheless, sensitive subjects, such as someone’s death, may arise naturally and spontaneously in the interview situation. In my experience, the way to handle this type of situation, apart from gracefully steering the conversation into less fraught topics, is to do what any good listener would do: be empathetic and listen. After the interview, make sure you discuss your experience with your team leader and debrief with the rest of the fieldwork team for support.
More Good Questions
Other questions Labov (Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:33) found useful for eliciting narratives of personal experience may not work in other situations. Questions that are reported to be optimal are those that most human beings in the local context likely share (14).
(14)
a. What kind of memories do you have about being taught to ride a bike or learning to swim? b. Tell me what it was like during the winter/summer when you were growing up. c. What was/is your favourite game/hobby/pastime?
Organise
It may not seem like an interviewer is following a plan, but a good one usually is. Best practice is to organise questions so that one question leads naturally to the next. As discussed earlier, a topic should start out with a general question and then proceed to more detailed, specific questions. This approach will enhance your ability to retrieve questions by memory – a valuable thing in the middle of an interview when you run out of questions.
Another level of question organisation is the way in which you sequence questions within a module. Always structure the order of your questions by moving gently but firmly towards questions that will elicit a personal experience or personal memory (15).
(15)
In a question set on Family: a. How would you describe your upbringing? b. What were your parents like when you were young? c. Were there strict table rules? Curfews? Bedtimes? d. Could you talk to them? Did they have expectations of you? What kind? e. What happened when someone stepped out of line? f. Did you ever get blamed for something you didn’t do?
Aim to begin with a non-specific, broad question and progress to more focused ones (16). Note that numbers enclosed in square brackets are interviewee numbers, that is, [026] is individual number 26.
(16)
a. Interviewer: Lovely couple, aren’t they? [026] Yes. Interviewer: How’d they meet each other? (YRK, Interviewer 1, 1997) b. I wasn’t there the night York was blitzed, cos it wasn’t far from the station. Um. That was very traumatic. Interviewer: Tell me about that night. (YRK, vpeterson, man, 76; Interviewer 2)
The transcription conventions for the spelling of words may differ from one variety of English to another (e.g. ‘because’ as cos), and the way the interviewer and interviewee are marked may differ as well (e.g. the codes in square or angle brackets indicate the numeric label for the interviewee).
Always be aware of the information your interviewee supplies. This can help you in at least two ways. First, it will enable you to ask relevant questions about their experience during the interview (17).
(17)
[018] … the scrapes she got into was just nobody’s business. Interviewer: Can you tell us any of them? (YRK, wevans, man, 72; Interviewer 2)
Second, if someone tells you a story in one interview, you can use it to elicit informal speech in a subsequent interview (18).
(18)
Interviewer: … one time, didn’t you get taken to the police station in your curlers or something? You had your slippers on. [002] Oh yes, oh yes. Interviewer: Are you going to tell us about that? (YRK, eburrit, woman, 82, Interviewer 1)
An added benefit of this line of questioning is that in-group information is rapport-building, and it marks you as an accepted participant/observer in the community or social group. In general, always follow the second most important sociolinguistic interview rule – Be observant.
All these techniques are geared to elicit personal life experiences rather than philosophical ideas or generalities. Importantly, these ‘rules’ are suggestions built on previous research and experience in the field. In a real live interview situation, you must always follow the foremost sociolinguistic interview rule – Keep it natural.
Retain Your Authority
It is appropriate when interviewing to maintain a level of professionalism when it comes to technical aspects of recording. You should take on an air of authority in telling people where to sit so you can get the best sound. If you encounter the interviewee outside, suggest moving indoors. Make suggestions about the place to sit (e.g. away from windows). Insist on turning off televisions, electric fans, and so on. Move away from a noisy motor. Whatever you do, do not interview someone beside the fridge, mantle clock, or aquarium. If possible, make sure you are sitting in a room with carpeting. In fact, the ideal room in the house for interviewing, at least in North America or the UK, is the living room.
Most fieldworkers will have a story to tell about highly non-ideal interview situations with respect to noise, for example, a television, grandfather clock, an aquarium, animals, or small children. In some cases, you can make a request to turn down the volume or move to a different location, but in other cases you just have go with the flow. Fieldwork is always a balance between the goal to achieve best sound and stories and the goal to create rapport and make sure the interviewee is comfortable.
Interviewing Advice
The sociolinguistic interview technique has evolved considerably since the early days of New York, Detroit, Belfast, and Norwich. Times have changed; however, the general techniques which lead to optimal results, that is informal, spontaneous, natural dialogue, are the same. These strategies permit mitigation, of the natural obstacles inherent in the interview situation, particularly the uncommon situation of two strangers sitting down to talk across from each other.
Let the Individual Talk
The first technique is perhaps the most obvious – let the individual talk. This means if you ask a question and the person goes way off topic, let them. The whole idea of getting beyond the observer’s paradox is to have language that is spontaneous and natural. One of the worst things an interviewer can do is interrupt the interviewee. Note the inappropriateness of the interviewer’s question at the end of the excerpt in (19). It would have been better to simply say, ‘Really, tell me more about that!’ On the other hand, perhaps the interviewer did not want to get into that kind of story. Note that proper names in all examples are pseudonyms.
(19) Interviewee: That’s where he shot, right in that rock there, Uncle John. George Ashe shot him there. Interviewer: Royce, what’s the name of your children?
The effectiveness of the sociolinguistic interview should not be underestimated. People love to talk about their own personal experiences in life. As mentioned earlier, a sociolinguistic interview can be an extremely pleasurable experience for the interviewee. It can also be quite an eye-opener for the interviewer, especially if you are interviewing someone you already know. You may find out things you never knew before.
Practise sociolinguistic interviewing technique at family gatherings. Sit beside an elderly relative and start a conversation. Ask them what it was like growing up in their day and be interested in whatever they tell you. Ask another question. See if you can get them to tell you a story about their life. I’ll bet you will hear some unexpectedly interesting linguistic variables!
Approximate the Vernacular
Another technique involves approximating the vernacular of the interviewee. Labov (Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:33) calls this ‘colloquial format’. Inexperienced interviewers tend to act like they are traditional interviewers. They will formulate questions very stiffly with standard (or formal) grammar and intonation. This, of course, causes the interviewee to act in the same way – exactly what you do not want. If you can, naturally and appropriately align with their vernacular style. If you are relaxed and speaking informally, the interviewee is likely to as well.
Ask Short Questions
Another technique is simply to ask short questions. Questions formulated without preparation tend to be quite long, with many restarts. Labov (Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:34) suggests that each question should take less than five seconds to deliver, and in many cases, less than one second, for example and then what?, or further, (20).
(20)
a. Interviewer: What did he do? b. Interviewer: What was it like?
Take an Insider’s Point of View
Pay particular attention to the norms of the place (Labov, Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984:34). Here the idea is to show that you understand the critical issues of the community, neighbourhood, or group. Refer to something you have discovered about people or events, (21).
(21)
a. Hey, did you see that accident last night? b. What was Mr X doing on the roof yesterday?
Show the interviewee that you are attentive to real problems of concern to the local community. In this way, the conversation takes on life and becomes more engaged and authentic.
Be the Learner
Labov (Reference Labov, Baugh and Sherzer1984) says that another useful strategy in the sociolinguistic interview is to emphasise the position of the interviewer as a learner. However, this can lead to some interesting interviewing moments, (22). Observe that this strategy had worked far better than I (the interviewer) had imagined.
(22)
[104] And in the morning you had skim that, and there was churning to do. And there was the old dash then. Interviewer: What’s that? [104] Churn the butter (laughter). Oh god, you’re stupid!
Wisdom of People
In the end, the data that you collect by using these strategies will be more remarkable than you can imagine. I never cease to be amazed at how poignant sociolinguistic interviews can be. In fact, some of the wisdom, sayings, and thoughts of people whose words I have analysed have been etched in my memory for ever, (23).
(23)
a. If you can do the right things, you do the right thing. Sometimes you do the right thing, it’s the wrong thing. So, I mean, life is a big risk. (GYE) b. Money- money doesn’t mean a thing, love. As long as you’ve enough to pay your bills, that’s all you want. You don’t want money in the bank, you just want to get through. (YRK, woman, 82)
