Element contents
Series: Elements in Gender and Politics
Public Preferences, Gender, and Foreign Support for Armed Movements
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 January 2026
Summary
Female combatants are often central to rebel groups' outreach strategies, yet their impact on foreign support remains unclear. This Element examines how the presence of female fighters shapes international perceptions and support, drawing on original survey experiments in the United States and Tunisia as well as cross-national observational data. The findings demonstrate that foreign audiences are more likely to endorse government sponsorship of rebel groups with female combatants, perceiving them as more gender-equal, democratic, morally legitimate, and as less likely to harm civilians, even when they are agents of political violence. These favorable perceptions, in turn, increase the likelihood that democratic states will offer material support. In addition to establishing gender composition as a factor influencing external support in armed conflicts, this Element contributes to broader debates on the gender equality–peace nexus, humanitarian aid, rebel legitimacy, and gender stereotypes in nontraditional political spheres.
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in Gender and PoliticsOnline ISBN: 9781009407069Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 05 February 2026
References
Aaldering, Loes, and Van Der Pas, Daphne Joanna. 2020. “Political Leadership in the Media: Gender Bias in Leader Stereotypes during Campaign and Routine Times.” British Journal of Political Science 50(3): 911–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123417000795.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abadi, Jacob. 2017. “Tunisia and Israel: Relations under Stress.” Middle Eastern Studies 53(4): 507–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263206.2016.1263191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, Adams, Bracken, David, Gidron, Noam, Horne, Will, O’Brien, Diana Z., and Senk, Kaitlin. 2023. “Can’t We All Just Get Along? How Women MPs Can Ameliorate Affective Polarization in Western Publics.” American Political Science Review 117(1): 318–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055422000491.Google Scholar
Agadullina, Elena R., and Lovakov, Andrey V.. 2018. “Are People More Prejudiced towards Groups That Are Perceived as Coherent? A Meta-analysis of the Relationship between Out-Group Entitativity and Prejudice.” British Journal of Social Psychology 57(4): 703–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akcinaroglu, Seden, and Tokdemir, Efe. 2018. “To Instill Fear or Love: Terrorist Groups and the Strategy of Building Reputation.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 35(4): 355–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894216634292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alakoc, Burcu Pinar. 2020. “Femme Fatale: The Lethality of Female Suicide Bombers.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 43(9): 796–814. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1505685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al Chourouk (Sunrise). 2015. “بسبب جهاد النكاح: عراقية تقتل أحد قادة ‘داعش’ (Because of Jihad al-Nikah: An Iraqi Woman Kills One of the Leaders of ISIS).” تورس, September 7. www.turess.com/alchourouk/1129375.Google Scholar
Alison, Miranda. 2004. “Women as Agents of Political Violence: Gendering Security.” Security Dialogue 35(4): 447–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010604049522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allansson, Marie, Melander, Erik, and Themnér, Lotta. 2017. “Organized Violence, 1989–2016.” Journal of Peace Research 54(4): 574–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343317718773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Media, Amwaj. 2021. “Kuwait Allows Women to Join Military, Igniting Debate.” October 19. https://amwaj.media/en/media-monitor/kuwait-allows-women-to-join-military-igniting-debate-among-citizens.Google Scholar
Angrist, Joshua D., and Pischke, Jörn-Steffen. 2008. Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400829828.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arves, Stephen, Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher, and McCulloch, Caitlin. 2019. “Rebel Tactics and External Public Opinion.” Research and Politics 6(3): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168019877032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aydin, Aysegul. 2010. “Where Do States Go? Strategy in Civil War Intervention.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 27(1): 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894209352128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dylan, Balch-Lindsay, Enterline, Andrew J., and Joyce, Kyle A.. 2008. “Third-Party Intervention and the Civil War Process.” Journal of Peace Research 45(3): 345–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308088815.Google Scholar
Barnard, Anne. 2011. “Libya’s War-Tested Women Hope to Keep New Power.” New York Times, September 12. www.nytimes.com/2011/09/13/world/africa/13women.html.Google Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and Beaulieu, Emily. 2014. “Gender Stereotypes and Corruption: How Candidates Affect Perceptions of Election Fraud.” Politics & Gender 10(3): 365–91. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x14000221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and Beaulieu, Emily. 2019. “Women Politicians, Institutions, and Perceptions of Corruption.” Comparative Political Studies 52(1): 134–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018774355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and O’Brien, Diana Z.. 2018. “Defending the Realm: The Appointment of Female Defense Ministers Worldwide.” American Journal of Political Science 62(2): 355–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabogal, Barrios, Camila, Laura. 2021. “Beyond Victimization: Agency of Former Female FARC-EP Combatants in Colombia.” Zeitschrift Für Friedens- Und Konfliktforschung 10(1): 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42597-020-00054-w.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Başer, Caglayan. 2022. “Women Insurgents, Rebel Organization Structure, and Sustaining the Rebellion: The Case of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party.” Security Studies 31(3): 381–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2022.2097889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, Matthew A., and Potter, Philip B. K.. 2008. “The Relationships between Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis.” Annual Review of Political Science 11: 39–65. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.060406.214132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baum, Matthew A., and Potter, Philip B. K.. 2015. War and Democratic Constraint: How the Public Influences Foreign Policy. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400866472.Google Scholar
BBC. 2016. “Female Front Line Soldiers ‘Will Put Lives at Risk’, Says Ex-Army Chief.” BBC News, April 6. www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-35976113.Google Scholar
Ben-Shitrit, Lihi, Elad-Strenger, Julia, and Hirsch-Hoefler, Sivan. 2022. “‘Pinkwashing’ the Radical-Right: Gender and the Mainstreaming of Radical-Right Policies and Actions.” European Journal of Political Research 61(1): 86–110. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackman, Alexandra Domike, and Jackson, Marlette. 2021. “Gender Stereotypes, Political Leadership, and Voting Behavior in Tunisia.” Political Behavior 43(3): 1037–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-019-09582-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bob, Clifford. 2005. The Marketing of Rebellion: Insurgents, Media, and International Activism. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511756245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boutron, Camille. 2017. “Colombian Militants Have a New Plan for the Country, and It’s Called ‘Insurgent Feminism.’” The Conversation, July 3, 2017.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, Alex, and Ruiz, Luna B.. 2018. “Female Combatants, Forced Recruitment, and Civil Conflict Outcomes.” Research and Politics 5(2): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168018770559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brannon, Elizabeth. 2023. “Celebrated and Sidelined: How Women’s Roles in the National Resistance Army Shaped Post-Conflict Gender Politics.” Civil Wars 27(1): 165–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2023.2230812.Google Scholar
Brannon, Elizabeth L., and Thomas, Jakana. forthcoming. Legislating Peace: How Gender Diverse Rebel Parties Encourage the Implementation of Gender Peace Agreement Provisions. Elements in Gender and Politics. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brooks, Deborah Jordan, and Valentino, Benjamin A.. 2011. “A War of One’s Own: Understanding the Gender Gap in Support for War.” Public Opinion Quarterly 75(2): 270–86. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfr005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brun, Cathrine. 2005. “Women in the Local/Global Fields of War and Displacement in Sri Lanka.” Gender, Technology and Development 9(1): 57–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/097185240500900104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brutger, Ryan, Kertzer, Joshua D., Renshon, Jonathan, Tingle, Dustin, and Weiss, Chagai M.. 2023. “Abstraction and Detail in Experimental Design.” American Journal of Political Science 67(4): 979–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, Sarah Sunn, and Zetterberg, Pär. 2021. “Gender Quotas and International Reputation.” American Journal of Political Science 65(2): 326–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, Sarah Sunn, Donno, Daniela, and Zetterberg, Pär. 2024. “International Rewards for Gender Equality Reforms in Autocracies.” American Political Science Review 118(3): 1189–203. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423001016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Donald T. 1958. “Common Fate, Similarity, and Other Indices of the Status of Aggregates of Persons as Social Entities.” Behavioral Science 3(1): 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830030103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprioli, Mary, and Boyer, Mark A.. 2001. “Gender, Violence, and International Crisis.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 45(4): 503–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002701045004005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, R. Charli. 2005. “Women, Children and Other Vulnerable Groups: Gender, Strategic Frames and the Protection of Civilians as a Transnational Issue.” International Studies Quarterly, 49(2): 295–334.10.1111/j.0020-8833.2005.00346.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspersen, Nina. 2009. “Playing the Recognition Game: External Actors and De Facto States.” International Spectator 44(4): 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/03932720903351146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephen, Chaudoin, Gaines, Brian J., and Livny, Avital. 2021. “Survey Design, Order Effects, and Causal Mediation Analysis.” Journal of Politics 83(4): 1851–6. https://doi.org/10.1086/715166.Google Scholar
Chu, Jonathan A. 2021. “Liberal Ideology and Foreign Opinion on China.” International Studies Quarterly 65(4): 960–72. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqab062.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chu, Jonathan A., and Recchia, Stefano. 2022. “Does Public Opinion Affect the Preferences of Foreign Policy Leaders? Experimental Evidence from the UK Parliament.” Journal of Politics 84(3): 1874–7. https://doi.org/10.1086/719007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amanda, Clayton, O’Brien, Diana Z., and Piscopo, Jennifer M.. 2019. “All Male Panels? Representation and Democratic Legitimacy.” American Journal of Political Science 63(1): 113–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12391.Google Scholar
Scott, Clifford, Jewell, Ryan M., and Waggoner, Philip D.. 2015. “Are Samples Drawn from Mechanical Turk Valid for Research on Political Ideology?” Research and Politics 2(4): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168015622072.Google Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2013. “Explaining Rape during Civil War: Cross-National Evidence (1980–2009).” American Political Science Review 107(3): 461–77.10.1017/S0003055413000221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay, and Karim, Sabrina M.. 2022. “Does More Equality for Women Mean Less War? Rethinking Sex and Gender Inequality and Political Violence.” International Organization 76(2): 414–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818321000333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conover, Pamela Johnston, and Sapiro, Virginia. 1993. “Gender, Feminist Consciousness, and War.” American Journal of Political Science 37(4): 1079–99. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Matthew T., Sherman, Steven J., and Hamilton, David L.. 2002. “Perceived Entitativity, Stereotype Formation, and the Interchangeability of Group Members.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83(5): 1076–94. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.83.5.1076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, David E., Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Salehyan, Idean. 2009. “It Takes Two: A Dyadic Analysis of Civil War Duration and Outcome.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53(4): 570–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709336458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darden, Jessica Trisko, Henshaw, Alexis, and Szekely, Ora. 2019. Insurgent Women: Female Combatants in Civil Wars. Georgetown University Press.10.2307/j.ctvb1htcbCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demeritt, Jacqueline H. R., Nichols, Angela D., and Kelly, Eliza G.. 2014. “Female Participation and Civil War Relapse.” Civil Wars 16(3): 346–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2014.966427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dietrich, Simone, Donno, Daniela, Fleiner, Katharina, and Iannantuoni, Alice. 2025. “The Politics of Gender Mainstreaming in Foreign Aid.” International Studies Quarterly 69(2): sqaf033. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqaf033.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janina, Dill, Sagan, Scott D., and Valentino, Benjamin A.. 2022. “Kettles of Hawks: Public Opinion on the Nuclear Taboo and Noncombatant Immunity in the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Israel.” Security Studies 31(1): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2022.2038663.Google Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen. 2010. “The Impact of Gender Stereotyped Evaluations on Support for Women Candidates.” Political Behavior 32(1): 69–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-009-9090-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donald, Heather Mac. 2019. “Women Don’t Belong in Combat Units.” Wall Street Journal, January 13.Google Scholar
Dovi, Suzanne. 2007. “Theorizing Women’s Representation in the United States.” Politics and Gender 3(3): 297–319. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X07000281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edgell, Amanda B. 2017. “Foreign Aid, Democracy, and Gender Quota Laws.” Democratization 24(6): 1103–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2016.1278209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eichenberg, Richard C. 2003. “Gender Differences in Public Attitudes toward the Use of Force by the United States, 1990–2003.” International Security 28(1): 110–41. (Reprinted in Bruce Russett (ed.), International Security and Conflict, Routledge: [Ashgate, 2008] 2016, pp. 413–44.)10.1162/016228803322427992CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eichenberg, Richard C. 2005. “Victory Has Many Friends: US Public Opinion and the Use of Military Force, 1981–2005.” International Security 30(1): 140–77. https://doi.org/10.1162/0162288054894616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eichenberg, Richard C. 2016. “Gender Difference in American Public Opinion on the Use of Military Force, 1982–2013.” International Studies Quarterly 60(1): 138–48. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqv019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Entman, Robert M. 2003. Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion, and US Foreign Policy. University of Chicago Press.10.7208/chicago/9780226210735.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James D. 1994. “Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes.” American Political Science Review 88(3): 577–92. https://doi.org/10.2307/2944796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, Bryan. 2019. “Women Absolutely Do Not Belong in Combat.” American Family Association. January 22. www.afa.net/the-stand/culture/2019/01/women-absolutely-do-not-belong-in-combat/.Google Scholar
Flanagin, Jake. 2014. “Women Fight ISIS and Sexism in Kurdish Regions.” Op-Talk, October 13. https://archive.nytimes.com/op-talk.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/13/women-fight-isis-and-sexism-in-kurdish-regions/.Google Scholar
Flock, Elizabeth. 2024. “Inside the Feminist Revolution in Northern Syria.” Noēma, March 25. www.noemamag.com/inside-the-feminist-revolution-in-northern-syria.Google Scholar
Gadarian, Shana Kushner. 2010. “The Politics of Threat: How Terrorism News Shapes Foreign Policy Attitudes.” Journal of Politics 72(2): 469–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gartner, Scott Sigmund. 2008. “The Multiple Effects of Casualties on Public Support for War: An Experimental Approach.” American Political Science Review 102(1): 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055408080027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christopher, Gelpi, Feaver, Peter D., and Reifler, Jason. 2009. Paying the Human Costs of War: American Public Opinion and Casualties in Military Conflicts. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830091.Google Scholar
Gentry, Caron E., and Sjoberg, Laura. 2015. Beyond Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Thinking About Women’s Violence in Global Politics. Bloomsbury Publishing.10.5040/9781350218628CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiles-Meilhac, Samuel. 2014. “Tunisia’s Relations with Israel in a Comparative Approach.” Bulletin Du Centre de Recherche Français à Jérusalem 25 (November). https://journals.openedition.org/bcrfj/7352.Google Scholar
Giri, Keshab. 2023. “Rebel Governance of Marriage and Sexuality: An Intersectional Approach.” International Studies Quarterly 67(2): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqad028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giri, Keshab, and Haer, Roos. 2024. “Female Combatants and Durability of Civil War.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 47(5): 526–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.1980982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldsmith, Benjamin E., and Horiuchi, Yusaku. 2012. “In Search of Soft Power: Does Foreign Public Opinion Matter for US Foreign Policy?” World Politics 64(3): 555–85. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887112000123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstein, Joshua S. 2001. War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Griffin, Elizabeth. 2014. “YPJ Soliders Fighting ISIS – Women Soldiers in a War Against ISIS. Marie Claire, October 1. www.marieclaire.com/culture/news/a6643/these-are-the-women-battling-isis/.Google Scholar
Hamilton, David L., and Sherman, Steven J.. 1996. “Perceiving Persons and Groups.” Psychological Review 103(2): 336–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harbom, Lotta, Melander, Erik, and Wallensteen, Peter. 2008. “Dyadic Dimensions of Armed Conflict, 1946–2007.” Journal of Peace Research 45(5): 697–710. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308094331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrell, Baylee. 2023. “Can’t Live with Them or Can’t Live without Them? How Varying Roles of Women in Rebel Groups Influence One-Sided Violence.” International Interactions 49(6): 875–903. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2023.2233677.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heger, Lindsay, and Salehyan, Idean. 2007. “Ruthless Rulers: Coalition Size and the Severity of Civil Conflict.” International Studies Quarterly 51(2): 385–403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2007.00456.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heilman, Madeline E. 2001. “Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women’s Ascent Up the Organizational Ladder.” Journal of Social Issues 57(4): 657–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heilman, Madeline E., and Haynes, Michelle C.. 2005. “No Credit Where Credit Is Due: Attributional Rationalization of Women’s Success in Male-Female Teams.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90(5): 905–16. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrera, Natalia, and Porch, Douglas. 2008. “‘Like Going to a Fiesta’ – the Role of Female Fighters in Colombia’s FARC-EP.” Small Wars and Insurgencies 19(4): 609–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592310802462547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hicks, Raymond, and Tingley, Dustin. 2011. “Causal Mediation Analysis.” Stata Journal 11(4): 605–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x1101100407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timothy, Hildebrandt, Hillebrecht, Courtney, Holm, Peter M., and Pevehouse, Jon. 2013. “The Domestic Politics of Humanitarian Intervention: Public Opinion, Partisanship, and Ideology.” Foreign Policy Analysis 9(3): 243–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2012.00189.x.Google Scholar
Holman, Mirya R., Merolla, Jennifer L., and Zechmeister, Elizabeth J.. 2011. “Sex, Stereotypes, and Security: A Study of the Effects of Terrorist Threat on Assessments of Female Leadership.” Journal of Women, Politics and Policy 32(3): 173–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2011.589283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsti, Ole R. 1992. “Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: Challenges to the Almond-Lippmann Consensus.” International Studies Quarterly 36(4): 439–66. https://doi.org/10.2307/2600734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsti, Ole R. 2004. Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy, revised ed. University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.6750.Google Scholar
Horton, Alex. 2017. “A Bullet Almost Killed This Kurdish Sniper. Then She Laughed About It.” Washington Post, June 28. www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2017/06/28/a-bullet-almost-killed-this-kurdish-sniper-then-she-laughed-about-it/.Google Scholar
Huang, Reyko. 2016. “Rebel Diplomacy in Civil War.” International Security 40(4): 89–126. https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, Valerie M., Caprioli, Mary, Ballif-Spanvill, Bonnie, McDermott, Rose, and Emmett, Chad F.. 2009. “The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States.” International Security 33(3): 7–45. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.2009.33.3.7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurka, Thomas. 2005. “Proportionality in the Morality of War.” Philosophy and Public Affairs 33(1): 34–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.2005.00024.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, Tingley, Dustin, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2011. “Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning About Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies.” American Political Science Review 105(4): 765–89. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055411000414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ives, Brandon. 2021. “Ethnic External Support and Rebel Group Splintering.” Terrorism and Political Violence 33(7): 1546–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1636035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyengar, Shanto. 1991. Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. University of Chicago Press.10.7208/chicago/9780226388533.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyeran, Jo, Joowon, Yi, and Barrett, Josiah. 2025. “Humanitarian Rebels? Rebel Governance and International Humanitarian Engagement.” International Politics 62: 336–57. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-023-00521-0.Google Scholar
Jung, Jae-Hee, and Tavits, Margit. 2024. Counter-Stereotypes and Attitudes toward Gender and LGBTQ Equality. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/9781009406628CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahn, Kim Fridkin. 1996. The Political Consequences of Being a Woman: How Stereotypes Influence the Conduct and Consequences of Political Campaigns. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2003. “The Ontology of ‘Political Violence’: Action and Identity in Civil Wars.” Perspectives on Politics 1(3): 475–94. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592703000355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kristen, Kao, Lust, Ellen, Shalaby, Marwa, and Weiss, Chagai M.. 2024. “Female Representation and Legitimacy: Evidence from a Harmonized Experiment in Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia.” American Political Science Review 118(1): 495–503. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055423000357.Google Scholar
Kertzer, Joshua D., and Zeitzoff, Thomas. 2017. “A Bottom-Up Theory of Public Opinion About Foreign Policy.” American Journal of Political Science 61(3): 543–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kertzer, Joshua D., Powers, Kathleen E., Rathbun, Brian C., and Iyer, Ravi. 2014. “Moral Support: How Moral Values Shape Foreign Policy Attitudes.” Journal of Politics 76(3): 825–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381614000073.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kollárová, Marta. 2015. “Good or Bad Agents? Western Fascination with Women and the Construction of Female Objects during the ISIS Crisis.” Master’s thesis, Central European University, Budapest.Google Scholar
Krebs, Ronald R., and Jackson, Patrick Thaddeus. 2007. “Twisting Tongues and Twisting Arms: The Power of Political Rhetoric.” European Journal of International Relations 13(1): 35–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066107074284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreft, Anne-Kathrin, and Agerberg, Mattias. 2024. “Imperfect Victims? Civilian Men, Vulnerability, and Policy Preferences.” American Political Science Review 118(1): 274–90. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423000345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreps, Sarah, and Maxey, Sarah. 2018. “Mechanisms of Morality: Sources of Support for Humanitarian Intervention.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62(8): 1814–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002717704890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and O’Brien, Diana Z.. 2012. “All the President’s Men? The Appointment of Female Cabinet Ministers Worldwide.” Journal of Politics 74(3): 840–55. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381612000382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kubovich, Yaniv. 2021. “IDF Chief Rabbi Attended Meeting on Women in Combat Roles Despite Army Promise.” Haaretz, March 3. www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-03-03/ty-article/.premium/idf-chief-rabbi-attended-meeting-on-women-in-combat-roles-despite-army-promise/0000017f-db34-d856-a37f-fff467fb0000.Google Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. 2004. “Women, War, and Winning Elections: Gender Stereotyping in the Post-September 11th Era.” Political Research Quarterly 57(3): 479–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290405700312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazarus, Sarah. 2019. “Women. Life. Freedom. Female Fighters of Kurdistan.” CNN, January 28. www.cnn.com/2019/01/27/homepage2/kurdish-female-fighters/index.html.Google Scholar
Xiaojun, Li, and Chen, Dingding. 2021. “Public Opinion, International Reputation, and Audience Costs in an Authoritarian Regime.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 38(5): 543–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894220906374.Google Scholar
Lin-Greenberg, Erik. 2021. “Soldiers, Pollsters, and International Crises: Public Opinion and the Military’s Advice on the Use of Force.” Foreign Policy Analysis 17(3): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orab009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Shan-Jan Sarah. 2018. “Are Female Political Leaders Role Models? Lessons from Asia.” Political Research Quarterly 71(2): 255–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912917745162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, Carolyn J. 1996. “U.S. Public Opinion and the Intervention in Somalia: Lessons for the Future of Military-Humanitarian Interventions.” Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 20(2): 155–80.Google Scholar
Loken, Meredith. 2017. “Rethinking Rape: The Role of Women in Wartime Violence.” Security Studies 26(1): 60–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1243915.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loken, Meredith. 2021. “‘Both Needed and Threatened’: Armed Mothers in Militant Visuals.” Security Dialogue 52(1): 21–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010620903237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loken, Meredith. 2024. Women, Gender, and Rebel Governance during Civil Wars. Elements in Gender and Politics. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/9781009335669CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loken, Meredith, and Matfess, Hilary. 2024. “Introducing the Women’s Activities in Armed Rebellion (WAAR) Project, 1946–2015.” Journal of Peace Research 61(3): 489–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433221128340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupu, Yonatan, and Wallace, Geoffrey P. R.. 2024. “The Laws of War and Public Support for Foreign Combatants.” International Organization 78(4): 823–52. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818324000274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellen, Lust, and Benstead, Lindsay J.. 2024. “Is the Future Female? Lessons from a Conjoint Experiment on Voter Preferences in Six Arab Countries.” Comparative Political Studies 57(14): 2376–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140241237462.Google Scholar
Macdonald, Myra. 2006. “Muslim Women and the Veil: Problems of Image and Voice in Media Representations.” Feminist Media Studies 6(1): 7–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680770500471004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKenzie, Megan. 2009. “Securitization and Desecuritization: Female Soldiers and the Reconstruction of Women in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone.” Security Studies 18(2): 241–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636410902900061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manekin, Devorah, and Wood, Reed M.. 2020. “Framing the Narrative: Female Fighters, External Audience Attitudes, and Transnational Support for Armed Rebellions.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 64(9): 1638–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002720912823.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, Monty, Gurr, Ted, and Jaggers, Keith. 2017. Polity™ IV Project – Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2017: Dataset Users’ Manual. Center for Systemic Peace. www.systemicpeace.org/inscr/p4manualv2017.pdf.Google Scholar
Matfess, Hilary. 2024. In Love and at War: Marriage in Non-state Armed Groups. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009358859.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matfess, Hilary, and Loken, Meredith. 2024. “Women’s Wings in Rebel Organisations: Prevalence, Purposes and Variations.” Civil Wars 27(1): 15–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2024.2302737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattiacci, Eleonora, and Jones, Benjamin T.. 2020. “Restoring Legitimacy: Public Diplomacy Campaigns during Civil Wars.” International Studies Quarterly 64(4): 867–78. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqaa065.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, Daniel C., and Sundquist, James. 2023. “When Does Public Diplomacy Work? Evidence from China’s ‘Wolf Warrior’ Diplomats.” Political Science Research and Methods 11(4): 921–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2022.41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maxey, Sarah. 2020. “The Power of Humanitarian Narratives: A Domestic Coalition Theory of Justifications for Military Action.” Political Research Quarterly 73(3): 680–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912919852169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazurana, Dyan E., McKay, Susan A., Carlson, Khristopher C., and Kasper, Janel C.. 2002. “Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilization, and Reintegration.” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 8(2): 97–123. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327949PAC0802_01.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Rose, and Cowden, Jonathan A.. 2001. “The Effects of Uncertainty and Sex in a Crisis Simulation Game.” International Interactions 27(4): 353–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050620108434990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McManus, Anne-Marie. 2013. “Sentimental Terror Narratives: Gendering Violence, Dividing Sympathy.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 9(2): 80–107. https://doi.org/10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.9.2.80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehrl, Marius. 2022. “Female Combatants and Wartime Rape: Reconsidering the Role of Women in Armed Conflict.” Armed Forces and Society 48(2): 464–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327x20981696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melander, Erik. 2005. “Gender Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict.” International Studies Quarterly 49(4): 695–714. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2005.00384.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, Jonathan. 2010. “Emotional Beliefs.” International Organization 64(1): 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818309990221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer-Parlapanis, Danie, Weierstall, Roland, Nandi, Corina, Bambonyé, Manassé, Elbert, Thomas, and Crombach, Anselm. 2016. “Appetitive Aggression in Women: Comparing Male and Female War Combatants.” Frontiers in Psychology 6: 1972. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mishra, A. K. 2024. “Fostering Local Economic Development through Agripreneurship in Nepal.” SAIM Journal of Social Science and Technology 1(1): 1–11.10.70320/sacm.2024.v01i01.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nacos, Brigitte L. 2005. “The Portrayal of Female Terrorists in the Media: Similar Framing Patterns in the News Coverage of Women in Politics and in Terrorism.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 28(5): 435–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100500180352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naurin, Daniel, Naurin, Elin, and Alexander, Amy. 2019 “Gender Stereotyping and Chivalry in International Negotiations: A Survey Experiment in the Council of the European Union.” International Organization 73(2): 469–88. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818319000043.Google Scholar
NBC News. 2024. “Trump’s Pick for Defense Secretary Doesn’t Want Women Serving in Combat.” NBC, November 14.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Diana Z. 2019. “Female Leaders and Citizens’ Perceptions of Political Parties.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 29(4): 465–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2019.1669612.Google Scholar
O’Rourke, Lindsey A. 2009. “What’s Special About Female Suicide Terrorism?” Security Studies 18(4): 681–718. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636410903369084.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortega, Luisa Maria Dietrich. 2010. Transitional Justice and Female Ex-combatants: Lessons Learned from International Experience. Research Brief. International Center for Transitional Justice. www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/ddr_femaleexcombatants_0.pdf.Google Scholar
Pasha-Robinson, Lucy. 2017. “Female Yemeni Fighters Carry Babies and Machine Guns at Anti-Saudi Rally.” The Independent, January 18. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/yemen-female-fighters-conflict-huthi-rebels-antisaudi-coalition-rally-sanaa-a7532486.html.Google Scholar
Peez, Anton, and Bethke, Felix S.. 2025. “Does Public Opinion on Foreign Policy Affect Elite Preferences? Evidence from the 2022 US Sanctions Against Russia.” International Studies Quarterly 69(1): sqae145. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqae145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, V. Spike. 1992. Gendered States: Feminist (Re)visions of International Relations Theory. Lynne Rienner Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781685859305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popkin, Samuel L. 1994. The Reasoning Voter: Communication and Persuasion in Presidential Campaigns. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rajan, V. G. Julie. 2011. Women Suicide Bombers: Narratives of Violence. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203821831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Regan, Patrick M. 2002. “Third-Party Interventions and the Duration of Intrastate Conflicts.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 46(1): 55–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002702046001004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryckman, Kirssa Cline, and Henshaw, Alexis Leanna. 2025. “Women without a Tactical Advantage: Boko Haram’s Female Suicide Bombers.” Conflict Management and Peace Science [online]. https://doi.org/10.1177/07388942241305235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salehyan, Idean. 2010. “The Delegation of War to Rebel Organizations.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 54(3): 493–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709357890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Idean, Salehyan, Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Cunningham, David E.. 2011. “Explaining External Support for Insurgent Groups.” International Organization 65(4): 709–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818311000233.Google Scholar
Salehyan, Idean, Siroky, David, and Wood, Reed M.. 2014. “External Rebel Sponsorship and Civilian Abuse: A Principal-Agent Analysis of Wartime Atrocities.” International Organization 68(3): 633–61. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002081831400006X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
San-Akca, Belgin. 2016. States in Disguise: Causes of State Support for Rebel Groups. Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190250881.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, Kenneth A. 2001. Democracy and Coercive Diplomacy. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511491658CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwarz, Susanne, and Coppock, Alexander. 2022. “What Have We Learned About Gender from Candidate Choice Experiments? A Meta-analysis of Sixty-Seven Factorial Survey Experiments.” Journal of Politics 84(2): 655–68. https://doi.org/10.1086/716290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, J. David. 1988. “Reconstructing the Correlates of War Dataset on Material Capabilities of States, 1816–1985.” International Interactions 14(2): 115–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050628808434695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sivakumaran, Sandesh. 2012. The Law of Non-international Armed Conflict. Oxford University Press.10.1093/law/9780199239795.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sixta, Christine. 2008. “The Illusive Third Wave: Are Female Terrorists the New ‘New Women’ in Developing Societies?” Journal of Women, Politics and Policy 29(2): 261–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/15544770802118645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sjoberg, Laura. 2013. Gendering Global Conflict: Toward a Feminist Theory of War. Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Sjoberg, Laura. 2018. “Jihadi Brides and Female Volunteers: Reading the Islamic State’s War to See Gender and Agency in Conflict Dynamics.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 35(3): 296–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894217695050.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sjoberg, Laura, and Gentry, Caron E.. 2007. Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women’s Violence in Global Politics. Zed Books.Google Scholar
Laura, Sjoberg, Kadera, Kelly, and Thies, Cameron G.. 2018. “Reevaluating Gender and IR Scholarship: Moving beyond Reiter’s Dichotomies toward Effective Synergies.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62(4): 848–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002716669207.Google Scholar
Slantchev, Branislav L. 2006. “Politicians, the Media, and Domestic Audience Costs.” International Studies Quarterly 50(2): 445–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2006.00409.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sputnik International. 2015. “21st Century Amazons: Syrian Army Female Battalion Fights to Defend Syria.” December 26. https://sputnikglobe.com/20151226/syria-army-women-soldiers-1032346479.html.Google Scholar
Stack-O’Connor, Alisa. 2007. “Lions, Tigers, and Freedom Birds: How and Why the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Employs Women.” Terrorism and Political Violence 19(1): 43–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550601054642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stallman, Heidi, and Hadi, Falak. 2025. “Gender Inclusion and Rebel Strategy: Legitimacy Seeking Behavior in Rebel Groups.” International Politics 62(2): 291–317. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-024-00561-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton, Jessica A. 2016. Violence and Restraint in Civil War: Civilian Targeting in the Shadow of International Law. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781107706477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanton, Jessica A. 2020. “Rebel Groups, International Humanitarian Law, and Civil War Outcomes in the Post-Cold War Era.” International Organization 74(3): 523–59. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818320000090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stauffer, Katelyn E., and O’Brien, Diana Z.. 2018. “Quantitative Methods and Feminist Political Science.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, Megan A., Petkun, Jonathan B., and Revkin, Mara R.. 2024. “The Progressive Case for American Power.” Foreign Affairs, June 18. www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/progressive-case-american-power.Google Scholar
Svallfors, Signe. 2024. “Reproductive Justice in the Colombian Armed Conflict.” Disasters 48(3): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svolik, Milan W. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139176040CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szekely, Ora. 2020. “Fighting About Women: Ideologies of Gender in the Syrian Civil War.” Journal of Global Security Studies 5(3): 408–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogz018 .CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tellander, Ebba, and Horst, Cindy. 2019. “A Foreign Policy Actor of Importance? The Role of the Somali Diaspora in Shaping Norwegian Policy towards Somalia.” Foreign Policy Analysis 15(1): 136–54. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orx012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tessler, Mark, and Warriner, Ina. 1997. “Gender, Feminism, and Attitudes toward International Conflict: Exploring Relationships with Survey Data from the Middle East.” World Politics 49(2): 250–81. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.1997.0005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Jakana L. 2021. “Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing: Assessing the Effect of Gender Norms on the Lethality of Female Suicide Terrorism.” International Organization 75(3): 769–802. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818321000035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Jakana L. 2024. “Sisters Are Doing It for Themselves: How Female Combatants Help Generate Gender-Inclusive Peace Agreements in Civil Wars.” American Political Science Review 118(2): 831–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423000461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Jakana L., and Bond, Kanisha D.. 2015. “Women’s Participation in Violent Political Organizations.” American Political Science Review 109(3): 488–506. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055415000313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Jakana L., and Wood, Reed M.. 2018. “The Social Origins of Female Combatants.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 35(3): 215–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894217695524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toivanen, Mari, and Baser, Bahar. 2016. “Gender in the Representations of an Armed Conflict: Female Kurdish Combatants in French and British Media.” Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication 9(3): 294–314. https://doi.org/10.1163/18739865-00903007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tokdemir, Efe, Seden Akcinaroglu, H. Ege Ozen, and Karakoc, Ekrem. 2020. “‘Wars of Others’: National Cleavages and Attitudes towards External Conflicts.” International Interactions 46(6): 953–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2020.1792898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomz, Michael. 2007. “Domestic Audience Costs in International Relations: An Experimental Approach.” International Organization 61(4): 821–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818307070282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomz, Michael R., and Weeks, Jessica L. P.. 2013. “Public Opinion and the Democratic Peace.” American Political Science Review 107(4): 849–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055413000488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael R., Tomz, and Weeks, Jessica L. P.. 2020. “Human Rights and Public Support for War.” Journal of Politics 82(1): 182–94. https://doi.org/10.1086/705741.Google Scholar
Michael, Tomz, Weeks, Jessica L. P., and Yarhi-Milo, Keren. 2020. “Public Opinion and Decisions About Military Force in Democracies.” International Organization 74(1): 119–43. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818319000341.Google Scholar
Towns, Ann E. 2010. Women and States: Norms and Hierarchies in International Society. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511779930.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US Central Command [@CENTCOM]. 2017a. “Ready for the Fight.” Tweet. X/Twitter. https://x.com/CENTCOM/status/836574056468082688.Google Scholar
US Central Command [@CENTCOM]. 2017b. “By Popular Demand, More Photos of the Female Fighters of the Syrian Anti-ISIS Campaign.” Tweet. X/Twitter. https://x.com/CENTCOM/status/836573860669571072.Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2022. “Department of Defense Releases Annual Demographics Report – Upward Trend in Number of Women.” US Department of Defense, December 14. www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/article/3246268/department-of-defense-releases-annual-demographics-report-upward-trend-in-numbe/.Google Scholar
US Embassy in Tunisia. 2021. “Secretary Barrett and General Harrigian’s Visit Demonstrate Tunisia Is a Key Partner.” January 8. https://tn.usembassy.gov/secretary-barrett-and-general-harrigians-visit-demonstrate-tunisia-is-a-key-partner/.Google Scholar
Viterna, Jocelyn. 2014. “Radical or Righteous? Using Gender to Shape Public Perceptions.” In Bosi, Lorenzo, Demetriou, Chares, and Malthaner, Stefan (eds.), Dynamics of Political Violence: A Process Oriented Perspective on Radicalization and the Escalation of Political Violence. Routledge, pp. 189–236.Google Scholar
von Clausewitz, Carl ([1832] 1873). On War [Vom Krieg], trans. J. J. Graham. N. Trübner & Co. (A more recent edition is Carl Clausewitz, On War, Penguin, 2003.)Google Scholar
Walter, Barbara F. 2015. “Why Bad Governance Leads to Repeat Civil War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 59(7): 1242–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714528006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, Emma Saran. 2015. “ISIS’s Biggest Fear Is Being Killed by Women.” Teen Vogue, December 14. www.teenvogue.com/story/isis-fear-killed-by-women-heaven.Google Scholar
Weeks, Ana Catalano, Meguid, Bonnie M., Kittilson, Miki Caul, and Coffé, Hilde. 2023. “When Do Männerparteien Elect Women? Radical Right Populist Parties and Strategic Descriptive Representation.” American Political Science Review 117(2): 421–38. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055422000107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weeks, Jessica L. 2008. “Autocratic Audience Costs: Regime Type and Signaling Resolve.” International Organization 62(1): 35–64. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818308080028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weeks, Jessica L. 2012. “Strongmen and Straw Men: Authoritarian Regimes and the Initiation of International Conflict.” American Political Science Review 106(2): 326–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055412000111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weeraratne, Suranjan. 2023. “Why Are Some Suicide Terror Attacks More Newsworthy Than Others?” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 16(2): 148–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2023.2218900.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weierstall, Roland, Castellanos, Claudia Patricia Bueno, Neuner, Frank, and Elbert, Thomas. 2013. “Relations among Appetitive Aggression, Post-Traumatic Stress and Motives for Demobilization: A Study in Former Colombian Combatants.” Conflict and Health 7(1): article 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-7-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, Jessica Chen. 2014. Powerful Patriots: Nationalist Protest in China’s Foreign Relations. Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199387557.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Jessica Chen, and Dafoe, Allan. 2019. “Authoritarian Audiences, Rhetoric, and Propaganda in International Crises: Evidence from China.” International Studies Quarterly 63(4): 963–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqz059.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M. 2019. Female Fighters: Why Rebel Groups Recruit Women for War. Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/wood19298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M., and Allemang, Lindsey. 2022. “Female Fighters and the Fates of Rebellions: How Mobilizing Women Influences Conflict Duration.” Conflict Management and Peace Science 39(5): 565–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/07388942211034746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M., and Ramirez, Mark D.. 2018. “Exploring the Microfoundations of the Gender Equality Peace Hypothesis.” International Studies Review 20(3): 345–67. https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/vix016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Reed M., and Thomas, Jakana L.. 2017. “Women on the Frontline: Rebel Group Ideology and Women’s Participation in Violent Rebellion.” Journal of Peace Research 54(1): 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343316675025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yarhi-Milo, Keren. 2018. Who Fights for Reputation: The Psychology of Leaders in International Conflict. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Yesiltas, Ozum. 2022. “Understanding Rojava: Representations of Kurdish Women Fighters in US Mainstream Media.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 18(3): 337–58. https://doi.org/10.1215/15525864-10022118.Google Scholar
Yuval-Davis, Nira. 1997. “Women, Citizenship and Difference.” Feminist Review 57(1): 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/014177897339632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.1 AA
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
The HTML of this element
complies with version 2.1 of the
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG), covering newer accessibility requirements and improved
user experiences and achieves the intermediate
(AA)
level of WCAG compliance, covering a wider range of accessibility requirements.
Content Navigation
Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Reading Order & Textual Equivalents
Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
Visual Accessibility
Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
Structural and Technical Features
ARIA roles provided
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.
- 2
- Cited by