Figures
2.1Close-ups of “The Nabob Rumbled or A Lord Advocates Amusement” by James Gillray with the full print center (image courtesy of the British Museum, ©Trustees of the British Museum)
2.2Frequencies (normalized per million words) of lemmatized massa in the Google Books data tables from 1770 to 1929
2.3Frequencies (normalized per million words) of lemmatized sahib in the Google Books data tables from 1770 to 1929
2.4A letter circulated both in North American and British newspapers that purports to be written by a slave in Herring Bay, Maryland (Domestic News 1747)
2.5A letter printed in The Spectator purportedly written by a “Bengali Baboo” (An Anglo-Indian 1907)
2.6Excerpts from a letter printed in the British Bee Journal supposedly written by a Chinese American beekeeper (Lung 1893)
3.1A notice advertising Don Juan from The Morning Chronicle, November 6, 1837
3.2Percentages of word counts by period (1768–1829, 1830–1879, and 1880–1929) and controlling for speaker
3.3A diagram showing the taxonomy of the verb phrase subcategory
4.1Bar plot showing the deviation of proportions for features in all dialogue with DP ≤ 0.80 and coded by category
4.2Bar plot showing the deviation of proportions for morphosyntactic features in all dialogue with DP ≤ 0.80 and coded by subcategory
4.3Base 10 logarithms of frequencies (x-axis) plotted against deviation of proportions (y-axis) for the 25 most dispersed features
4.4Base 10 logarithms of frequencies (x-axis) plotted against deviation of proportions (y-axis) for the 25 most frequent features
4.5A scene from Isabella Banks’s (1882) Through the Night showing the discovery of Archie Corbyn, who is mistaken for the ghost of his father
4.6Effect sizes for features with Kruskal-Wallis test-statistics that are significantly attributable to speaker (p < 0.001)
4.7Correlation matrix including features where DP ≤ 0.80 for any speaker group
4.8Correlation matrix including features with the highest coefficients and characteristic of African diasporic dialogue
4.9Euler diagrams showing the intersections of word-final -r insertion with other selected features
4.10Euler diagrams showing the intersections of feature pairs with the highest Jaccard similarity coefficients
4.11A scatter plot showing the normalized composite frequencies (the y-axis) over time (the x-axis) of dialect features for texts with a minimum of 95 words
4.13A plot showing the trend lines for composite frequencies
4.14A scatter plot showing the diversity indices for texts with a minimum of 95 words
4.17Base 10 logarithms of composite frequencies (x-axis) plotted against diversity indices (y-axis)
4.18A dendrogram showing the hierarchical clusters for texts with a minimum of 95 words
4.19A dendrogram cut into three clusters and coded by speaker
4.20A heat map showing the weighted mean frequencies for three clusters, with features determined by the Kruskal-Wallis test and arranged by effect size
4.21A heat map showing the recalibrated mean frequencies for nine clusters, with features determined by the Kruskal-Wallis test and arranged by effect size
4.22Box plots showing the spread in publication dates in the subgroupings of cluster 1
4.23The dendrogram with clusters identified by their AU p-values
5.1Deviation of proportions for features in African diasporic dialogue with DP ≤ 0.80 and coded by category
5.2Scatter plots showing linear trends in frequency for the lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological categories for African diasporic dialogue
5.3Box plots for the frequencies of lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological categories for African diasporic dialogue
5.4Scatter plots showing the linear trends in diversity for the morphosyntactic and phonological categories for African diasporic dialogue
5.5Stacked area chart showing the nineteenth-century trends (using a generalized additive model) for frequencies of the four superordinate categories in African diasporic dialogue
5.6Effect sizes for comparisons between the early (pre-1830), middle (1830–1880), and late (1880–1929) periods for the morphosyntactic, orthographic, and phonological categories in African diasporic dialogue
5.7Stacked area chart showing the nineteenth-century trends (using a generalized additive model) for selected phonological features in African diasporic dialogue
5.8A dendrogram zoomed and highlighted for African diasporic dialogue
5.9Box plots for the frequencies of phonological features in the sub-clusters of 1
5.10Effect sizes for comparisons between cluster 1C and the combined clusters 3B and 3C for the four superordinate categories in African diasporic dialogue
5.11Cluster containing the African diasporic dialogue from Cupid in Africa (1920) and The Forest (1924)
5.12Cluster containing the African diasporic dialogue from Americans Abroad (1824) and No Followers (1837)
6.1A bar plot showing the feature frequencies for the four superordinate categories and coded for speaker
6.2Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue and between Indian and Chinese dialogue for lexical-type features
6.3Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue and between Indian and Chinese dialogue for morphosyntactic-type subcategories
6.4Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue and between Indian and Chinese dialogue for phonological-type subcategories
6.5Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue and between Indian and Chinese dialogue for the features that are more significantly frequent in Indian dialogue
6.6Scatter plots showing linear trends in frequency for the lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological categories for Indian dialogue
6.7Box plots for the lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological categories for Indian dialogue
6.8Scatter plot showing linear trends over time for the morphosyntactic category for Indian dialogue using quantile regression (τ = 0.1–0.9)
6.9A plot showing goodness-of-fit (R1(τ)) for quantiles where τ = 0.1–0.9
6.10Scatter plot showing linear trends over time for the lexical category for Indian dialogue using two different regression models
6.12A subsection of cluster 1C, which includes three early examples of Indian dialogue
6.13A subsection of cluster 3C, which includes two early examples of Indian dialogue
6.14Clusters containing Indian dialogue (left) and African diasporic dialogue (right) from Lutchmee and Dilloo (1877)
6.15Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue from Lutchmee and Dilloo (1877) for the four main categories
6.16Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue from With a Stout Heart (1874) for the four main categories
6.17Effect sizes for comparisons between Indian and African diasporic dialogue from With a Stout Heart (1874) for the lexical subcategories
6.18Scatter plot showing linear trends over time for code-mixing for Indian dialogue using two different regression models
7.1Effect sizes for comparisons between Chinese and African diasporic dialogue and between Chinese and Indian dialogue for the four superordinate categories and total composite frequency
7.2Scatter plots showing linear trends in frequency for the lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological categories for Chinese dialogue
7.3Frequencies (normalized per million words) of lemmatized chinaman in the Google Books data tables from 1770 to 1929
7.5Effect sizes for comparisons between Chinese and African diasporic dialogue from The Hero of Panama (1912) for features, where p < 0.01
7.6Effect sizes for comparisons between Chinese from Under the Waves (1876) and African diasporic dialogue from Middy and the Moors (1888) for features, where p < 0.01
7.7Pentafoliate grouping from cluster 3C in the full dendrogram, which contains the Chinese dialogue from East of Suez (1922), Under the Dragon Throne (1897), and Limehouse Nights (1916)
7.8Frequencies (normalized per million words) of lemmatized chinatown in the Google Books data tables from 1770 to 1929
G.1A histogram of composite frequencies for all dialex files
G.3A q-q plot assessing the multivariate normality of all coded features
G.4A q-q plot of the plot of the residuals after the data has undergone a log + 1 transformation
G.5A q-q plot of the residuals from nontransformed residuals
G.6Histograms for the frequencies of invariant present tense in the dialogue of each speaker group
G.7Scatter plot showing the number of features (the y-axis) appearing within a given range of dialex files (the x-axis)
G.8Scatter plot of log-likelihood and log ratio values for all tokens in a comparison of VISiBL and standard dialogue
G.10Chi-squared probability curve for two degrees of freedom, with the area under the curve shaded and marked at the points where it equals 5%, 1%, and 0.1% of the total area
G.11Chi-squared probability curves for 2, 4, and 8 degrees of freedom
G.12Chi-squared probability curve for 1 degree of freedom, with the area under the curve shaded and marked at the points where it equals 5%, 1%, and 0.1% of the total area
