7.1 Introduction

People can work internationally without being classified as expatriates or migrants. This chapter explores these alternative options, focusing, in particular, on three of the main alternative ‘other’ ways of arranging international work: short-term assignments (STAs), international business travel (IBTs), and international commuting (Reference McNulty and BrewsterMcNulty & Brewster, 2019). While expatriates are people who go to work in another country on a temporary basis but for a number of years and migrants are people who go to work in another country expecting to settle down there (McNulty & Brewster, 2019), the ‘other’ ways of working in another country tend to be shorter and, crucially, do not involve relocating ‘home’ or taking the family, if there is one, with them.

As is always necessary, we note the fungibility of the categories we explore and we discuss that briefly as follows: international business travellers are sometimes already expatriates, and some international commuters do not retain a permanent home in their own country; people who start as short-term assignees may be asked to stay on and become expatriates, and so on. But the categories indicate important classes of people who have to date received much less research attention than expatriates or migrants, even though there are substantial numbers in each group.

Each of the three major categories of ‘other’ international work – STAs, IBT, and international commuting – can be either organisationally initiated or can be self-initiated and we note these variations as we explore the topic. Common to all three main alternative types of international work is that the period of time they spend outside the home country is relatively short: during the working day only or varying from a few days to one year (Reference Mäkelä, Saarenpää, McNulty, McNulty and SelmerMäkelä, Saarenpää, & McNulty, 2017) – if it is longer than that, of course, they meet the criteria for ‘expatriation’. Serious research on this large group of international workers is limited; some of the best information and reports that we have about ‘other’ international workers and the opportunities and challenges that they and their employers face have to be taken from the consulting field. Scholarly work is, as we shall show, only slowing catching up.

From the organisational perspective, consultancy reports predict that while long-term expatriation is forecast to stay at about current levels, or to grow only slowly, these other kinds of work are expected to grow by more than half over the next few years (KPMG, 2017). It seems that similar patterns can be found in all regions of the world (Cartus, 2018; Reference JohnsonJohnson, 2017). For the organisation these could be cost-effective ways of working that fit business requirements. The one-off, up-front costs are more attractive than commitment to costs over a long period of time (Air Inc, 2018; Reference JohnsonJohnson, 2017). Expatriation is expensive for organisations and they are continually seeking ways to reduce the costs of getting work done internationally, while trying to gain some, though necessarily not all, of the benefits of expatriation. ‘Other’ international workers are normally cheaper than expatriates, staying on home country salaries, with fewer additional benefits and perks. Because assignments are short, families do not accompany them, and that is cheaper for the employer. In addition, administration is more straightforward, and hence cheaper, because in most cases no international tax liabilities are created (Reference DuxburyDuxbury, 2018). In nearly all cases, the employment contract remains in the home country and is administered under its terms and conditions (Reference Mäkelä, Saarenpää, McNulty, McNulty and SelmerMäkelä et al., 2017).

Yet these cheaper ‘other’ international assignments have some (though not all) of the benefits of expatriation. They can bring needed skills to a specific location (Reference Mäkelä, Saarenpää, McNulty, McNulty and SelmerMäkelä et al., 2017; Reference Minbaeva and MichailovaMinbaeva & Michailova, 2004), they are flexible, (Air Inc, 2012; Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2009) and they fit with operational requirements. In addition, the use of, for example, commuter assignments may be safer than expatriation to a dangerous territory (Welch & Worm, 2006)

One consequence is that much of these ‘other’ forms of international work are outside the purview of the Global HRM function, where the specialists are responsible for expatriation, and the local HRM function, where the specialists may know about and be trying to integrate migrants. Neither has responsibility for the other forms of international work, which are largely controlled by line managers: the organisation as a whole may not even have a clear view of how many people they have in each of these categories.

For the people who are on short-term assignments, or travelling frequently or commuting, these patterns may be convenient or safer, or they may just be part of the way their job is done and, perhaps, always has been done. We explore the advantages and disadvantages of each form of work for each of the key stakeholders as we address them in turn.

7.2 Short-term Assignees

7.3 International Business Travellers

7.3.1 Overview

An international business traveller, or as they are sometimes called a ‘frequent flyer’, is someone ‘for whom business travel is an essential component of their work’ (Welch & Worm, 2006: 284). Crucially, IBTs do not relocate, differentiating them from STAs and other forms of assignees. And they normally travel to several different countries and on less regular patterns, which sets them apart from international commuters. The duration of their visits is defined by the goals of their work and they may be involved with a range of teams in different countries (Reference Collings, McDonnell, McCarter, Collings, Wood and CaligiuriCollings et al., 2015).

The last decades have seen an increase in international business travel (Brookfield GMAC, Reference Brookfield2013; Reference DeFrank, Konopaske and IvancevichDeFrank, Konopaske, & Ivancevich, 2000; Reference Hovhannisyan and KellerHovhannisyan & Keller, 2015) and it has been common to assume that this trend will continue. The value of the global business travel market is already well over #1 trillion and forecast to grow to #1.3 trillion by 2023 (Allied Market Research, 2018). Many authors have pointed to patterns of globalisation and the increased need for cooperation, innovation, and trust across units that operate in different countries. While some of these factors are clearly right, we are currently witnessing a strong societal trend emerging that may limit this growth. Global warming and the need to reduce carbon emissions have become central in the political and environmental discourse of many societies and the pressure to limit one’s carbon footprint is increasing. While this has yet to manifest itself in less international travel it remains a distinct possibility that many MNCs may take drastic actions to use more virtual means of business meetings and coordination. This may decrease costs and their carbon footprints further while alleviating some of the pressures on IBTs to travel as frequently as before.

There are different perspectives that can be used to explore the issues involved in IBTs. We have chosen to use a perspective that focuses predominantly on individual, organisational, and family characteristics. As with other expatriation models (Reference Harris, Brewster and SparrowHarris, Brewster, & Sparrow, 2003) it employs a temporal view and takes account of the mutual dependency of international workers and their employers. Given, however, that international travel may be part of a normal career pattern in a multinational organisation we have developed a double helix framework that indicates that the endings might also be new beginnings in another position that equally involves international travel.

Figure 7.1 The double helix of IBTs – combining perspectives

Work as an IBT is distinct from work as an expatriate who relocates to a foreign country. The pressures on expatriates have been depicted through the expatriation cycle (Reference Harris, Brewster and SparrowHarris et al., 2003). While a mutual dependence between organisation and individuals obviously exists for IBTs, its nature is distinct. Expatriates depend most on their organisation when they are moving abroad – for household shipping, schooling, accommodation, health provision, etc. – and when they are returning from abroad (predominantly for the physical relocation and for gaining a ‘good’ job in the next location). For IBTs this dependency has different nuances (the focus is on travel arrangements, security, and health implications) and it is more evenly stretched in time and in relation to all their travel activities. Thus, the organizational support needed is distinct. The family – which does not move abroad – is affected in a different way. In addition, the learning that IBTs are likely to accumulate is less single foreign location specific and may include some more transferable skills and insights (Reference Baruch, Dickmann, Altman and BournoisBaruch et al., 2013). The double helix of IBTs depicts the interplay and complex interdependencies between individuals, organisations, and the wider context.

7.4 International Commuters

7.5 Conclusions

Overall, it seems that ‘other’ kinds of international working are growing faster than the more familiar forms of expatriation. Due to such growth and our lack of research evidence around such forms of mobility, we need further understanding of the special nature of such mobility. In Table 7.1, we compare the characteristics of the three types of international mobility we have discussed. Table 7.1 collects together the key points in what literature we have. A major research problem is that in many cases there is no central repository within organisations about these categories of worker. Because some of these types of international working (such as international commuting in the European Union) are organised by and controlled by individuals, and many of the other kinds (short-term contracts, frequent travel, etc.) are organised and controlled by individual line managers and financed directly from their budgets, the human resource management specialists may not even know how many of these types of international workers the organisation has, never mind understand their issues and their potential. This makes research difficult. It may also be that some characteristics posed for certain type might also be relevant for other types, but those have not been raised in the literature. Further research is thus needed to fully understand the characteristics of these types of international work.

As noted throughout the chapter, our knowledge of such workers is generally thin: there is much that we do not know. These are areas of international mobility where the opportunities for further research appear fruitful, ultimately advancing not just our academic knowledge but also informing organisations, policy-makers as well as STAs, IBTs, and cross-border commuters and their families of the likely benefits and potential threats to their careers and lives.

Based on our review and discussion on future research avenues related with each type of international work in the text, we have suggested some areas for further research in Table 7.1. Even where we have evidence, it often comes from just one or very few, often limited, studies. We thus have little information about different types of employees, and certain types of organisations or country contexts. It is difficult to generalise findings to other types of situation and we need further research to validate the observations. There is a fruitful research field here.

8.1 Introduction

Skilled individuals with professional qualifications increasingly decide to relocate temporarily and work in foreign countries (Reference Doherty, Dickmann and MillsDoherty, Dickmann, & Mills, 2011; Reference FroeseFroese, 2012; Reference Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Dickmann and TornikoskiSuutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Dickmann, & Tornikoski, 2018). These individuals, referred to as self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) (Reference Froese and PeltokorpiFroese & Peltokorpi, 2013; Reference LeeLee, 2005; Reference PeltokorpiPeltokorpi, 2008; Reference Peltokorpi and FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2009; Reference Selmer and LauringSelmer & Lauring, 2014; Reference TharenouTharenou, 2013), are estimated to make up the majority of the overall expatriate population (Reference Shao and Al ArissShao & Al Ariss, 2020; Reference Stoermer, Davies and FroeseStoermer, Davies, & Froese, 2017). In contrast to assigned expatriates (AEs), sent from headquarters to work in a foreign subsidiary for a set period of time to achieve an organisational goal (Reference Harrison, Shaffer and Bhaskar-ShrinivasHarrison, Shaffer, & Bhaskar-Shrinivas, 2004: 203), the key distinguishing characteristic of SIEs is that their expatriation is not company-backed (Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson, Arthur, Pringle, & Barry, 1997; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000) and less driven by career concerns. SIEs tend to place more emphasis on the desire to spend some time living in a certain country of their choice and to initiate a change of scenery (Reference Doherty, Dickmann and MillsDoherty et al., 2011; Reference Selmer and LauringSelmer & Lauring, 2012; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000; Reference ThornThorn, 2009). For organisations, SIEs are a welcomed and valuable addition to the available talent pool and can be hired to fill shortage of skilled labour and to buy-in expertise with the aim of facilitating intra-organisational knowledge transfer and learning processes (Reference Tang, Chang and ChengTang, Chang, & Cheng, 2017; Reference TharenouTharenou, 2013; Reference Vaiman and HaslbergerVaiman & Haslberger, 2013; Reference Vaiman, Haslberger and VanceVaiman, Haslberger, & Vance, 2015).

Although the traditional research on expatriates has implicitly or explicitly focused on AEs (Reference Selmer, Lauring, Vaiman and HaslbergerSelmer & Lauring, 2013), research on SIEs has started to gain momentum in the past two decades and evolved into its own field of inquiry (Dickmann, Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Tanskanen, & Tornikoski, 2018; Reference DohertyDoherty, 2013). One stream of this research has also compared the career experiences, trajectories, and cross-cultural adjustment between SIEs and AEs (Reference Froese and PeltokorpiFroese & Peltokorpi, 2013; Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen, Brewster & Suutari, 2008; Reference Peltokorpi and FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2009; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000; Reference Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Dickmann and TornikoskiSuutari et al., 2018). Another stream of research has further increased the clarity of the SIE-concept (Reference Al Ariss and Crowley-HenryAl Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013; Reference Andresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld and DickmannAndresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld, & Dickmann, 2014; Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014), and the motivations that lead individuals to self-initiate expatriation (Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference FroeseFroese, 2012; Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al., 1997; Reference Selmer and LauringSelmer & Lauring, 2010; Reference ThornThorn, 2009). Due to the considerable increase of the literature on SIEs and the growing importance of SIEs as a source of talent (Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014), the purpose of this chapter is (1) to provide a concise overview of the extant knowledge on SIEs; (2) to outline relevant areas of research that warrant further attention; and (3) to derive recommendations for individuals entrusted with human resource management (HRM) on how to attract and retain SIEs.

The remainder of this chapter is organised as follows. In the next section, we will review the literature on the conceptual definition(s) pertaining to SIEs and illustrate how SIEs differ from AEs and other types of globally mobile individuals. We then outline the relevant literature dealing with the specific characteristics and challenges/advantages of the SIE-situation. Here, we cover vital aspects, such as SIE demographics, motivation, cross-cultural adjustment to the host country, and career experiences and career capital accumulation. In the discussion section, we synthesise the most pressing implications for the management of SIEs and future research, and conclude with a brief summary.

8.2 SIEs – Definition and Differentiation

In the expatriate literature, SIEs were first mentioned in an article by Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al. (1997) describing common practice among university graduates in Australia and New Zealand to work and travel abroad for a certain time and then return home (Reference Inkson and MyersInkson & Myers, 2003). Since then, various different SIE-related terms and definitions have emerged, such as self-initiated foreign work experience (SFE) (Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000), self-initiated foreign workers (Reference Harrison, Shaffer and Bhaskar-ShrinivasHarrison et al., 2004), and self-initiated foreign expatriates (SEs) (Reference Biemann and AndresenBiemann & Andresen, 2010). In addition to inconsistent terms and definitions of SIEs, there has been confusion on the defining features that constitute self-initiated expatriation and how SIEs are distinguished from other expatriate types, sojourners, and migrants (Reference Al Ariss and Crowley-HenryAl Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013; Reference Andresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld and DickmannAndresen et al., 2014; Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014; Reference McNulty and BrewsterMcNulty & Brewster, 2017; Reference FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2012). SIEs were often defined as individuals who decide by themselves to live and work in foreign countries (Reference Peltokorpi and FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2009). To differentiate SIEs from migrants, Reference FroesePeltokorpi and Froese (2012) suggested that SIEs should harbour at least some thoughts of returning back to their home country. However, many SIEs eventually become migrants planning to remain indefinitely in the host country (Reference Al Ariss and Crowley-HenryAl Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013).

Despite the initial (and to some extent continuing) vagueness about what the SIE-categorisation entails, several scholars have developed criteria for defining SIEs (Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014; Reference McNulty and BrewsterMcNulty & Brewster, 2017; Reference FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2012). Among the most notable efforts, Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin and Selmer (2014) developed a taxonomy consisting of four criteria: (1) self-initiated international relocation; (2) regular employment intentions; (3) intentions of a temporary stay; and (4) skilled/professional qualifications. The first criterion relates to whether the expatriate or the employing organisation initiated the international relocation. If individuals have been deployed by their employer to carry out an international assignment, they should be considered AEs. The same applies to individuals who proactively initiated their expatriation within the boundaries of their organisation, because they still remain employees of their home country company and usually receive support during the expatriation cycle. In contrast, individuals who move on their own accord without organisational support from the home country should be considered SIEs. This may also include individuals who self-dependently acquired their job in the host country before relocation and who received relocation support from the new employer in the host country. In addition, following criterion two, SIEs take up regular employment in the host country or at least have the intention to do so. Application of this criterion helps to distinguish SIEs from students or trailing partners who have no intention to become employed in the host country (Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014). Third, while SIEs can in some cases obtain the citizenship of the host country, the intention of a temporary stay during the initiation of the relocation is what differentiates SIEs from migrants, who usually plan to settle permanently in the host country. Fourth, SIEs need to have certain skills/professional qualifications that allow them to find a job in the host country. However, Reference Andresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld and DickmannAndresen et al. (2014) do not consider criteria three and four essential for SIEs and adopt a much broader understanding of the SIE-concept.

In summary, the criteria provided by Cerdin and Selmer resonate to a great extent with the other available differentiation schemes found in the literature (Reference McNulty and BrewsterMcNulty & Brewster, 2017; Reference FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2012), suggesting that SIEs (1) seek employment abroad self-dependently; (2) are employed in the host country; (3) intend to stay for a limited time; and (4) are skilled professionals. However, scholars still appear to have different opinions of how to categorise SIEs and debate exists regarding the differentiation from migrants (Reference Al Ariss and Crowley-HenryAl Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013; Reference Andresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld and DickmannAndresen et al., 2014; Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014).

8.3 SIEs – Who They Are

SIEs have been estimated to account for a substantial and increasing number of the globally mobile workforce (Reference Shao and Al ArissShao & Al Ariss, 2020; Reference Vaiman and HaslbergerVaiman & Haslberger, 2013). However, estimating a precise SIE headcount is a difficult task because reports about temporary worker migration as provided by the OECD and other large-scale studies are not without caveats and data coverage might not be exhaustive. Also, in part due to different definitions of SIEs and classifications of migration statistics of temporary workers, it is difficult to make an exact estimation of the SIE-population. Nevertheless, the accumulated research on SIEs has provided valuable information on the individuals constituting the SIE-population and helped to triangulate the demographic profiles of SIEs.

Regarding gender, the SIE-population is estimated to have a more even share of males and females as compared to the male-dominated AE-population – which is estimated to be approximately 75 per cent males (e.g., Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2016). Based on an analysis of large-scale studies (e.g., Reference Napier and TaylorNapier & Taylor, 2002; Reference ThornThorn, 2009), Reference TharenouTharenou (2010) estimated that approximately half of the SIE-population is female. She reasoned that women may self-initiate expatriation to circumvent male-bias in selection processes for company-backed overseas assignments. Then again, some female spouses become SIEs in an attempt to follow their husbands while maintaining their careers. Similar numbers reflecting a nearly even share of male and female SIEs are found in several studies (Reference Andresen, Biemann and PattieAndresen, Biemann & Pattie, 2015; Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Chen and ShafferChen & Shaffer, 2017; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000).

In terms of age and organisational rank, research suggests that SIEs start their overseas working experience at a younger age than AEs (Reference Biemann and AndresenBiemann & Andresen, 2010; Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000). SIEs tend to work in lower levels in organisational hierarchy (Reference Froese and PeltokorpiFroese & Peltokorpi, 2013; Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al., 2008) and since self-initiated expatriation is not subject to intra-organisational selection processes (Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014; Reference FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2012), it might fit better into the life stage of younger individuals. This assumption is in line with Inkson et al.’s (Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and Barry1997) account of overseas experience as a time for young university graduates to go abroad for travel and work.

With regards to marital status and number of children, research suggests that SIEs are often singles (or, at least not married) and have no or fewer children than AEs (Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000; Reference Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Dickmann and TornikoskiSuutari et al., 2018), which could have facilitated their motivation to expatriate without organisational support (Reference FroeseKim & Froese, 2012). Furthermore, a study suggests that married expatriates with children were less motivated to be geographically mobile unless circumstances rendered no other alternative (Reference Crowley-HenryCrowley-Henry, 2007). Of course, these research findings can be confounded with the age differences between AEs and SIEs.

Referring to education level, several studies consistent with Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin’s and Selmer’s (2014) taxonomy suggest that SIEs are well-educated. For example, this tendency is reflected in studies focusing on SIE-academics (Reference Chen and ShafferChen & Shaffer, 2017; Reference FroeseFroese, 2012; Reference Richardson and McKennaRichardson & McKenna, 2002; Reference Richardson and MallonRichardson & Mallon, 2005; Reference Selmer and LauringSelmer & Lauring, 2010), and other skilled groups of SIEs such as accountants, IT-experts, managers, and lawyers (Reference LeeLee, 2005; Reference Suutari and TakaSuutari & Taka, 2004; Reference Tharenou and CaulfieldTharenou & Caulfield, 2010). Perhaps for this reason, Haslberger and Vaiman (Reference Haslberger, Vaiman, Vaiman and Haslberger2013: 4) characterised self-initiated expatriation with ‘high skill level’. However, research suggests that there are no major differences between AEs and SIEs in terms of education level – most hold at least a graduate degree (Reference Dorsch, Suutari, Brewster, Andersen, Al Ariss and WaltherDorsch, Suutari & Brewster, 2013).

In terms of country of origin, early studies focused mainly on SIEs originating from Anglo-American and Western European countries (e.g., Reference Biemann and AndresenBiemann & Andresen, 2010; Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Dickmann, Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Tanskanen and TornikoskiDickmann et al., 2018; Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al., 1997; Reference Richardson and McKennaRichardson & McKenna, 2002; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000; Reference Suutari and TakaSuutari & Taka, 2004; Reference Tharenou and CaulfieldTharenou & Caulfield, 2010; Reference ThornThorn, 2009). In the light of this bias on Western industrialised countries, research on SIEs and AEs has some similarities. More recent studies on SIEs have also expanded the scope to SIEs from emerging markets such as China (Reference Shao and Al ArissShao & Al Ariss, 2020), and less developed countries such as Lebanon (Reference Al Ariss and ÖzbilginAl Ariss & Özbilgin, 2010) or Sri Lanka (Reference Chathurani, Froese and BaderChathurani, Froese & Bader, 2019). Considering the ‘push-pull model’ in the migration literature (Reference Cerdin, Abdeljalil-Diné and BrewsterCerdin, Abdeljalil-Diné, Brewster, 2014), we expect that a substantial number of the present SIE population moves from developing countries to industrialised countries, because industrialised countries tend to provide better career opportunities for highly educated and mobile individuals. In general, the accumulated research suggests that SIEs come from various countries and move in various directions. This is somewhat in contrast to AE who are mainly assigned from industrialised countries to other industrialised and major emerging markets such as China (e.g., Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2016).

As for duration of host country stay, scholars have argued that SIEs stay longer – on average between six to eight years – whereas AEs’ stay often ranges between two to five years (Reference Cerdin and SelmerCerdin & Selmer, 2014; Reference FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2012). As already noted, AEs by definition are sent from headquarters to work in a foreign subsidiary for a given period of time to achieve an organisational goal (Reference Harrison, Shaffer and Bhaskar-ShrinivasHarrison et al., 2004). In contrast, SIEs have more flexibility to determine the duration of their stay in the host country. Perhaps for this reason, studies show that SIEs remain longer in host countries than AEs (Reference PeltokorpiPeltokorpi, 2008). Turning to further explanatory factors underlying duration of stay, a recent study (Reference Meuer, Troster, Angstmann, Backes-Gellner and PullMeuer et al., 2019) focused on the influence of embeddedness, which relates to individuals’ perceptions of how strongly there are enmeshed in the host country (e.g., Reference Tharenou and CaulfieldTharenou & Caulfield, 2010). Meuer et al. showed that community embeddedness (i.e., non-work-related links, fit, and sacrifices) is more important for explaining the repatriation intentions of AEs than of SIEs, whereas on-the-job embeddedness (i.e., work-related links, fit, and sacrifices) is more important for explaining the repatriation intentions of SIEs compared to AEs.

Taken together, previous research has not provided any definite numbers capturing the global SIE population. Nevertheless, accumulated studies allow us to infer some rough trends suggesting that the SIE population is (1) more balanced in terms of gender than AEs; (2) younger than AEs; (3) less bounded by family obligations than AEs; (4) well-educated; (5) highly diverse in terms of country of origin; and (6) stay abroad longer than AEs. While substantial research has identified typical characteristics, most previous SIEs studies have used convenience samples that do not necessarily present the overall SIE population. Large-scale data is still missing to provide a representative account of SIE characteristics, particularly on a global scale.

8.4 SIEs – Motivations for Going Abroad

Research suggests some notable differences in SIEs’ and AEs’ motivations for going abroad (Reference Andresen, Biemann and PattieAndresen et al., 2015; Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Doherty, Dickmann and MillsDoherty et al., 2011; Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al., 1997; Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al., 2008; Reference Selmer and LauringSelmer & Lauring, 2010; Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000; Reference ThornThorn, 2009). While AEs often accept overseas assignments for career-related reasons (Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Doherty, Dickmann and MillsDoherty et al., 2011), studies suggest the subordinate role of (immediate) career motives for SIEs. In a qualitative study, Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al. (1997) analysed the accounts of New Zealand SIEs to explore the reasons that make them relocate. They found that SIEs placed great importance on collecting cultural experience, were highly curious, and considered their time abroad as a means to grow as a person. A similar picture was drawn in one of the most comprehensive endeavours by Reference ThornThorn (2009) who collected data from more than 2,600 New Zealand SIEs spread across 93 host destinations. The study revealed that the opportunity to travel was the most important motive followed by getting to know the home country of the partner, which relates to the fact that many SIEs are married to host country nationals (Reference FroeseFroese, 2012; Reference VanceVance, 2005). In Thorn’s study (Reference Thorn2009), better remuneration was the most important economic concern, ranked as the third important overall motive.

From interviews among British SIE academics, Reference Richardson and McKennaRichardson and McKenna (2002) derived four metaphors that capture the main motives for self-initiated expatriation: explorer; refugee; mercenary; and architect. The explorer, the mercenary and the architect leave their home country in order to gain something in the other country (interesting cultural experience, financial rewards or career-building, respectively). A ‘refugee’ is mostly interested in leaving the country he or she presently works in. Relatedly, the seminal qualitative study by Reference Richardson and MallonRichardson and Mallon (2005) developed a set of five themes that underlie SIE-motivation to move abroad. The most salient themes in their qualitative analysis related to adventure/travel, family, and change of scenery (e.g., being bored with life in the home country). Subordinate themes were financial reasons and career enhancement – for example, in terms of improving one’s resume by adding an international profile. Delving further into the motivational differences between SIEs and AEs, one stream of research has examined varying conceptions of careers between SIEs and AEs. Focusing on career anchors (Reference ScheinSchein, 1990) – a combination of perceived areas of competence, motives, and values relating to professional work choices – Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin and Le Pargneux (2010) found that dedication to a cause and lifestyle considerations were more pronounced in SIEs than AEs.

Further, protean (Reference HallHall, 2004) and boundaryless career orientations (Reference ArthurArthur, 1994) have been used in research on SIE motives to move abroad. Individuals with a protean/boundaryless career orientation take charge of their own careers, emphasise freedom and personal growth, and de-emphasise objective success criteria, such as salary or position, for the sake of personal goals. They are more committed to their profession as compared to their organisation and attach great relevance to being satisfied with work (Reference HallHall, 2004). Likewise, the boundaryless career concept takes account of the development that nowadays careers are less likely to unfold within a single organisational context and that individuals become increasingly independent from traditional organisational career principles (Reference ArthurArthur, 1994). The research on SIE-motivation has portrayed SIEs as protean/boundaryless careerists (e.g., Reference Cao, Hirschi and DellerCao, Hirschi & Deller, 2012; Reference Ceric and CrawfordCeric & Crawford, 2016: Reference Crowley-HenryCrowley-Henry, 2007; Reference Howe-Walsh and SchynsHowe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010; Reference InksonInkson, 2006) conveying the notion that SIEs tend to pursue a boundaryless career in which they move between organisations and countries; whereas AEs usually follow an organisational career (Reference Biemann and AndresenBiemann & Andresen, 2010). Yet, in their empirical study, Reference Andresen, Biemann and PattieAndresen et al. (2015) showed that while SIEs can be regarded as protean/boundaryless careerists no significant differences to AEs exist.

Another aspect influencing SIEs’ motivations to relocate are home and host country characteristics. In this stream of research, scholars have often relied on the ‘push-pull’ model (Reference Bierbrauer, Pedersen, Semin and FiedlerBierbrauer & Pedersen, 1996; Reference Massey and EspinosaMassey & Espinosa, 1997) to delineate factors that draw SIEs to certain locations and make them leave their home country. These motives range from better employment conditions in the host country labour market to family considerations, such as having extended family in the host location (e.g., Reference FroeseFroese, 2012; Reference ThornThorn, 2009). For example, job markets – at home and abroad – have been shown to affect SIEs’ decision to move abroad (Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al., 2008; Reference TharenouTharenou, 2010). Further, Doherty et al.’s (Reference Doherty, Dickmann and Mills2011) study compared a set of pull factors and their influence on the decision to relocate between SIEs and AEs. Interestingly, their findings suggest that SIEs placed significantly more relevance on aspects related to the host culture, the perceived ability to adapt, and the reputation of the host country.

Taken together, the above evidence suggests that SIEs (1) assign high importance to gaining cultural experience; (2) don’t consider career enhancement as the top priority; (3) are protean/boundaryless careerists; and (4) allocate greater value to host country characteristics in their decision to move abroad. Most studies in this domain are qualitative. While these studies have identified key motivating factors, quantitative studies are needed to validate and establish the generalisability of findings.

8.5 SIEs – Host Country Adjustment

Because individuals moving abroad are often confronted with a novel and unfamiliar cultural environment in host countries, cross-cultural adjustment is one of the most important antecedents of successful international relocation (Reference Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and LukBhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Cross-cultural adjustment refers to the degree to which expatriates are psychologically comfortable and familiar with different aspects of a foreign environment (Reference BlackBlack, 1988). One strand of the literature suggests that the construct has three sub-dimensions: general adjustment, work adjustment, and interaction adjustment. General adjustment is the degree of psychological comfort with regard to the host culture environment, such as climate, food, health care, housing conditions, and shopping; work adjustment is the degree of comfort regarding different expectations, performance standards, and work values; and interaction adjustment is comfort associated with interacting with HCNs inside and outside of work (Reference BlackBlack, 1988).

To date, research has focused predominately on the antecedents of SIEs’ cross-cultural adjustment. Looking at the role of personality of SIE academics in Denmark, Reference Selmer and LauringSelmer and Lauring (2014) found significant interrelations between dispositional affectivity and all three adjustment facets. Dispositional affectivity is a personality trait comprised of two dimensions – positive and negative affectivity – delineating an individuals’ general propensity to respond positively or negatively to environmental stimuli (Reference Watson, Clark and CareyWatson, Clark & Carey, 1988). More specifically, the findings suggest that positive affectivity has a positive effect on all three facets of adjustment; whereas negative affectivity relates negatively to the three adjustment facets. Emphasising the importance of personality and cultural intelligence, the study by Reference Huff, Song and GreschHuff, Song and Gresch (2014) investigated SIE teachers in Japan. Their findings indicate a positive relationship between motivational cultural intelligence and all three adjustment facets. In addition, two of the Big Five personality traits, that is intellect (openness to experience) and neuroticism, showed significant relationships with interaction adjustment. As such, neuroticism had a negative association with interaction adjustment; whereas intellect related positively to interaction adjustment. Furthermore, investigating multi-wave data, Reference Fu, Hsu and ShafferFu et al. (2017) showed that organisational socialisation tactics facilitated SIE-teachers’ social integration and learning in the Hong Kong workplace, which in turn facilitated interaction and work adjustment. Another study of SIE-teachers in Korea shows that whereas host country language proficiency and social interaction frequency with HCNs had a more positive influence on general and interaction adjustment facets, English use in the workplace, congruent communication, and conflict styles were more relevant to work adjustment (Reference Froese, Peltokorpi and KoFroese, Peltokorpi & Ko, 2012). Elucidating the role of family-related variables for SIE-academics’ adjustment in East Asia, Reference Davies, Kraeh and FroeseDavies, Kraeh and Froese (2015) found that SIE academics who were married to locals experienced the steepest increase in overall cross-cultural adjustment over time. Drawing on person-environment (PE) fit theory (Reference Jansen and Kristof-BrownJansen & Kristof-Brown, 2006), Reference Nolan and MorleyNolan and Morley (2014) tested how correspondence between SIE needs and organisational supplies, and SIE abilities and job demands affected their cross-cultural adjustment. The authors found that a good fit between SIE abilities and job demands facilitated work adjustment; whereas needs-supply fit facilitated interaction adjustment. Furthermore, Reference Cao, Hirschi and DellerCao et al. (2012) argued that a protean career orientation influences cross-cultural adjustment positively. The positive interrelation between protean career orientation and overall cross-cultural adjustment were corroborated in a subsequent empirical study (Reference Cao, Hirschi and DellerCao, Hirschi & Deller, 2013).

While both SIEs and AEs can face similar culture-related challenges adjusting to the host country environment, SIEs can encounter additional challenges because they often work in lower positions and start working in an entirely novel organisational context (Reference McDonnell, Scullion, Vaiman and HaslbergerMcDonnell & Scullion, 2013). Peltokorpi and Froese conducted two studies comparing AEs and SIEs in Japan. In their first study (Reference Peltokorpi and FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2009), SIEs reported higher general and interaction adjustment. However, the levels of work adjustment were similar between AEs and SIEs. In their second study, Reference Froese and PeltokorpiFroese and Peltokorpi (2013) centred on the causes that could explain the different levels of adjustment. Their results suggest that SIEs were more adjusted to interactions with locals due to better Japanese language proficiency and longer stays in Japan. Also, Japanese language proficiency and duration of stay in Japan mediated the effects of expatriate type on interaction adjustment. Interestingly, despite scoring higher on interaction adjustment, SIEs were not adjusted to work under a Japanese supervisor. Indeed, the mediation analysis of Reference Froese and PeltokorpiFroese and Peltokorpi (2013) show that supervisor national background carried an indirect effect in the association between expatriate type and job satisfaction, and accounted for lower levels of job satisfaction with SIEs.

In terms of outcomes of cross-cultural adjustment, Reference Tang, Chang and ChengTang et al. (2017) investigated a sample of SIEs in Vietnam. The authors found a positive link between work adjustment and SIE knowledge sharing in the workplace. Furthermore, the study of SIEs in Germany by Reference Cao, Hirschi and DellerCao et al. (2013) provided evidence that overall cross-cultural adjustment leads to higher career and life satisfaction as well as increased host country stay intentions. The study by Reference Selmer, Lauring, Normann and KubovcikovaSelmer, Lauring, Normann and Kubovcikova (2015) focused on how adjustment informs a host of pivotal work outcomes for SIE academics. Inter alia, they found that each of the three adjustment facets was positively correlated with job performance and job satisfaction. Likewise, time needed to establish proficiency on the job was negatively correlated with adjustment facets. In addition, the authors provided evidence that relationships varied between SIEs working for local or foreign universities. Moreover, the study by Reference Froese, Peltokorpi and KoFroese et al. (2012) suggested a strong negative relationship between work adjustment and SIEs’ turnover intentions across a sample of SIE teachers in South Korea.

Taken together, the above research on SIEs suggests that (1) cross-cultural adjustment is influenced by SIEs’ cultural intelligence, personality, and host country language proficiency; (2) that cross-cultural adjustment facilitates stay intentions, job/career satisfaction, and job performance; and (3) higher levels of adjustment to the cultural environment and interaction with locals are more likely to be found among SIEs. However, since the focus in research on SIEs has been on cross-cultural adjustment as an outcome itself, more studies are needed to consolidate the effects of cross-cultural adjustment facets on pertinent work outcomes, such as job performance or knowledge sharing. Research could also expand its focus and centre on variables such as voluntary turnover. Further, while SIEs and AEs differ on several dimensions, little is also known about the unique situation of SIEs since scholars have often replicated prior research from AEs to SIEs. In terms of methodology, prior research was mainly confined to qualitative and cross-sectional quantitate data. As a next step, we recommend more research relying on longitudinal research designs.

8.6 SIEs – Careers

A stream of research has examined SIEs’ career experiences and outcomes (Reference Al Ariss and ÖzbilginAl Ariss & Özbilgin, 2010; Reference Biemann and AndresenBiemann & Andresen, 2010; Reference Dickmann, Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Tanskanen and TornikoskiDickmann et al., 2018; Reference Doherty, Richardson and ThornDoherty, Richardson & Thorn, 2013; Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al., 1997; Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al., 2008; Reference LeeLee, 2005; Reference 201Myers and PringleMyers & Pringle, 2005; Reference Richardson and MallonRichardson & Mallon, 2005; Reference Rodriguez and ScurryRodriguez & Scurry, 2014). In general, SIEs are found to benefit from their international experience. In the case of younger SIEs, who set out to explore foreign cultures and to use their experience abroad to learn and develop, Reference Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and BarryInkson et al. (1997) found that SIEs returned to their home countries with a clearer outline of their career goals and felt more self-confident and self-reliant. In another study on New Zealand SIEs, Reference 201Myers and PringleMyers and Pringle (2005) stated that self-initiated expatriation provided individuals with accelerated career development opportunities and that especially female SIEs, because of their longer stays and more profound (work) experiences, accumulated more career capital than male SIEs. In this regard, key career qualities found in the study by Myers and Pringle were self-confidence, focus and career aspirations, interpersonal relations, and cross-cultural skills. Likewise, in Richardson and Mallon’s study (Reference Richardson and Mallon2005) on SIE-academics, a pattern emerged reflecting that the interviewed individuals associated their international experience with an increased employability in the internationalised academic job market.

Comparing the development of career capital between Finnish SIEs and AEs, Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al. (2008) focused on three types of career capital: knowing-how, knowing-why, and knowing-whom. Overall, their findings suggest that both AEs and SIEs associated their foreign experience with an increase in career capital across the three types of career capital. AEs and SIEs perceived that their social skills, their self-awareness of personal values and interests, and knowledge of key decision-makers in their organisation had increased as part of their foreign experience (Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al., 2008). In terms of differences, the study showed higher increases in AEs’ knowing-whom career capital. Furthermore, using time-lagged data to examine the development of career capital, Reference Dickmann, Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Tanskanen and TornikoskiDickmann et al., (2018) collected information from a group of Finnish AEs and SIEs in 2004 and 2012. Similar to Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al. (2008), they focused on changes in knowing-how, knowing-why, and knowing-whom, career capital. In summary, their study provided evidence that both AEs and SIEs perceived an overall increase in their career capital due to their expatriation experience; however, AEs gained significantly more knowing-whom and knowing-why career capital compared to SIEs. In another study relying on the same data, Reference Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Dickmann and TornikoskiSuutari et al. (2018) compared the career satisfaction, promotion and job changes of SIEs and AEs. The found no differences in terms of career satisfaction and promotion, but found that AEs changed their jobs more often than SIEs.

While the above evidence suggests generally positive effects of foreign work experience on SIEs’ careers, SIEs are also found to encounter challenges in the foreign workplace. Using a sample of SIEs in Singapore, Reference LeeLee (2005) examined the impact of perceived underemployment – perceptions of working in an inferior, lesser, or lower quality type of employment with little opportunities to utilise one’s skills – finding negative effects on SIEs’ job satisfaction, identification with work, and career satisfaction. In the same study, antecedents to perceived underemployment were a lack of job autonomy, a poor fit between SIEs’ skills and job demands, low variability in tasks, and unfulfilled promises made by the organisation. Furthermore, a study by Reference Al Ariss and ÖzbilginAl Ariss and Özbilgin (2010) on career experiences of Lebanese SIEs in France suggests the existence of structural constraints that impeded the utilisation of SIEs’ skills. Their study raised awareness on issues of downward career mobility related to self-initiated expatriation. In a related manner, Reference Hildisch, Froese and TohHildisch, Froese and Toh (2015) found evidence for the existence of discrimination of SIEs in Asia-Pacific and detrimental effects on retention outcomes.

While some SIEs seek to stay abroad and eventually become naturalised (Reference Al Ariss and Crowley-HenryAl Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013), repatriation is an important concern for most SIEs. In one of the few longitudinal studies on SIEs, Reference Tharenou and CaulfieldTharenou and Caulfield (2010) examined the factors that promote and inhibit repatriation. The findings show that career and community embeddedness acted as pull factors to stay in host country; whereas national identity, family encouragement to return, perceptions of better living conditions in the home country, and pressing situational factors (e.g., pregnancy and illness of a family member) acted as push factors to leave. The long-term career consequences of SIEs’ repatriation have not been comprehensively investigated given that this requires longitudinal research designs. Nonetheless, the small-scale qualitative study by Reference Begley, Collings and ScullionBegley, Collings and Scullion (2008) on the readjustment experiences of self-initiated repatriates to Ireland suggests that SIEs face greater stress and upheaval when returning to the home labour market than AEs, who remain in the same company.

In summary, the above evidence suggests that self-initiated expatriation is (1) associated with increased career capital; (2) not completely devoid of issues related to underemployment or structural barriers; (3) likely to get terminated/extended by push- and pull-factors; (4) presumably linked to more difficulties when it comes to re-adjusting to work after repatriating. Because prior research was mainly limited to subjective career perceptions, we know little about other objective career outcomes such as promotions and pay rise and little about the long-term consequences of self-initiated expatriation.

8.7 Conclusions

Changing demographics and globalisation have led to increased opportunities for skilled individuals to pursue international careers, and many SIEs have taken up these opportunities. In line with these changes, substantial research has been devoted to analyse the situation of SIEs (e.g., Reference FroeseFroese, 2012; Reference Jokinen, Brewster and SuutariJokinen et al., 2008; Reference Peltokorpi and FroesePeltokorpi & Froese, 2009). This chapter has reviewed the burgeoning literature on SIEs. Based on a comprehensive screening of the extant literature, we grouped prior research into five topics. Early research sought to define the concept of SIEs and describe the characteristics of SIEs, the first two topics we discussed in this chapter. This line of inquiry reached a certain level of saturation as it has created some clarity about the definition and characteristics of SIEs. We see more research opportunities in the other areas: motivation, adjustment and success, and career development. For these three areas, Table 8.1 summarises key findings, future research avenues, and practical implications for the management of SIEs.

A substantial body of research has focused on the motivations of SIEs and identified differences between AEs and SIEs (e.g., Reference Andresen, Biemann and PattieAndresen et al., 2015; Reference Cerdin and Le PargneuxCerdin & Pargneux, 2010; Reference Doherty, Dickmann and MillsDoherty et al., 2011; Reference FroeseFroese, 2012). We encourage future research to investigate how these differences affect other relevant outcomes, such as job performance; knowledge sharing; and voluntary turnover, preferably in a longitudinal fashion. Longitudinal designs would also reveal whether and how motivations change and how SIEs respond to such changes. For organisations, it would be important to consider the motivation of SIEs in their HRM practices. Given the boundaryless career understanding of many SIEs, organisations may consider international careers for their SIEs, such as relocation to other countries and rotations into other functions to offer learning opportunities. For aspiring SIEs, it would be important to obtain realistic job previews so that jobs would match their expectations.

Similar to the research on AEs (Reference Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and LukBhaskar-Srinivas et al., 2005), a large portion of prior SIE research has investigated the antecedents of cross-cultural adjustment and, to a lesser extent, its outcomes (e.g., Reference Cao, Hirschi and DellerCao et al., 2013; Reference Davies, Kraeh and FroeseDavies et al., 2015; Reference Froese, Peltokorpi and KoFroese et al., 2012). While previous SIE research has largely replicated and confirmed previous research on AEs, it is time for more contextualised research considering the unique situation of SIEs. For example, future research could examine the role of culture-specific knowledge and motivation of SIEs. Further, SIE research could consider other important outcome variables. In terms of methodology, we need more robust research designs, including longitudinal research. Based on previous research, organisations are recommended to provide more support to SIEs so that they can thrive. As SIEs do not receive the support and status that AEs do, they need to develop their own skills, resources and supporters to succeed in the foreign country. It would be important for them to carefully select a host country where they benefit from certain advantages, for example, prior existing network, language abilities, highly sought-after skills.

Career and career development have been a key topic in SIE research (e.g., Reference Al Ariss and ÖzbilginAl Ariss & Özbilgin, 2010; Reference Biemann and AndresenBiemann & Andresen, 2010; Reference Dickmann, Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Tanskanen and TornikoskiDickmann et al., 2018), as it is an important concern for SIEs. Beyond research on subjective career perceptions, we need more research on objective career outcomes, also considering long-term consequences. It would also be interesting to consider other stakeholders, such as HCN colleagues and partners, in this process. Organisations employing SIEs could consider individually tailored HRM practices to better motivate SIEs. SIEs, in turn, should carefully select host countries that would be beneficial for their careers and focus their efforts on learning to maintain their employability.

9.1 Introduction

One of the main challenges in the current literature on skilled migrant integration is understanding how distinct this population is from other groups of global careerists, such as expatriates, for example. Skilled migrants are often defined as individuals who bring credentials and experience from other countries who permanently settle and work in the host country have often been described as ‘forgotten’ and ‘invisible men and women’ (Reference Bell, Kwesiga and BerryBell, Kwesiga, & Berry, 2010). Thus far, one of the main differentiating features tends to be the intended length of stay that is the permanency of this decision. Migrants typically move with an idea of making their host country home for them and their families for the future. Moreover, in many migrant-welcoming countries, such as Canada, migrants initiate their migration journey into their home country through a lengthy process of application for immigration visas and thus their decision and the process of transition starts from home. Finally, another major distinction in most cases is the proactive nature as well as the independent character of their move. That is, most migrants arrive in the host country without any guarantee of work, not having many or any local relationships, so they have to proactively search for work and navigate the local labour market. This chapter will focus on skilled migrants, in particular, and their work and life trajectories in the new host country (see Figure 9.1). The chapter is organised in three major sections: (1) exploring individual level factors in skilled migrant adaptation and coping, (2) social capital and skilled migrant trajectories in the host country, and (3) organisational pathways towards migrant integration.

Figure 9.1 Skilled migrants’ work and life trajectories in the host country.

9.2 Individual Level Factors in Skilled Migrant Adaptation and Coping

One of the major challenges and most commonly researched topics related to skilled migrant careers in the host country has been their inability to secure employment commensurate to their level of education. This phenomenon is often described as underemployment or career downshifting. It has been studied in the context of regulated and unregulated professions; that is those who are regulated by local professional associations/bodies vs. those who do not have such barriers to practice. Typically, the research finds that skilled migrants in regulated professions such as doctors, lawyers, engineers, and teachers experience much more serious barriers to entry to the point that they suffer emotionally, and may experience strong form of professional identity threat due to occupational closure in those tightly controlled regulated fields (e.g., Reference Zikic and RichardsonZikic & Richardson, 2016). On the other hand, skilled migrants in unregulated professions, such as sales and marketing managers, financial analysts, or IT specialists, also face barriers often typical of anyone seeking work in the host country. This group of unregulated professionals is more challenged by issues such as having inadequate language/communication skills, seeking local social networks, and/or lacking full understanding of the local business norms.

Thus, some of the most common issues addressed in the literature today are these individual level barriers, whether related to credential recognition or what is commonly called ‘human capital translation’. Career challenges are also just one possible difficulty; migrants may also experience social and professional isolation, lack of belongingness, and inability to fully identify and acculturate locally. Questions revolve around not only migrants’ ability to manage these challenges but also how local context, society, and structures may affect their ability to cope. Thus, individual level issues must be understood in the context of local culture, organisation, and society overall.

Questions also focus on migrant’s motivation to migrate and integrate as well as their readiness to cope with variety of challenges experienced locally. Researchers pointed that a combination of rational and irrational factors draws skilled migrants into developed industrial countries (Reference HaugHaug, 2008). For example, rational choice and human capital theory proposed that economic and demographic factors motivate migration, since level of skills and qualification is strongly connected with the opportunities for finding a job and with the level of income in the country of destination (Reference HaugHaug, 2008). However, Boneva and Frieze (Reference Boneva and Frieze2001; 2006) noted that individuals might also be driven by the specific sets of personality characteristics, such as openness to experience (Reference Canache, Hayes, Mondak and WalsCanache et al., 2013), power motivation, and work-family values that initiate migratory behaviour pushing individuals to leave their country of origin. Among other factors leading to migration, researchers highlighted the presence of networks contributing to the skilled migrants’ expectations regarding help and desire to settle in certain countries/regions (Reference EpsteinEpstein, 2008).

As mentioned above, one of the common individual level barriers is language and communication. Language and culture, for example, are the most significant factors through which individuals define their similarity and differences in relation to others and these serve as the basis for group formation and differences. At the same time, social categorisation processes and stereotyping behaviours may determine action against groups seen as dissimilar (Reference Bonache, Brewster and SuutariBonache, Brewster, & Suutari, 2007; Reference Bonache, Langinier and Zárraga-ObertyBonache, Langinier, & Zárraga-Oberty, 2016; Reference Harvey, Novicevic, Buckley and FungHarvey et al., 2005; Reference Ogbonna and HarrisOgbonna & Harris, 2006); thus, in the case of skilled migrants vs. locals one may observe language, cultural, and human capital (foreign vs. local) differences as the most salient basis for differentiation. Moreover, beyond basic language skills, skilled migrants often struggle with mastering the tacit forms of communication skills, such as confidence, tact, fluency, modesty, interaction skills, and effective face to face techniques (Reference Mahmud, Alam and HärtelMahmud, Alam, & Hartel 2014). As a result, locals and migrants may easily encounter communication difficulties due to these culturally differing communication norms. In fact, communication competence overall is seen as one of the key indicators of employment success in today knowledge economy (e.g., Reference Dugdale, Daly, Papandrea and MaleyDugdale et al., 2005). Most local employers find that communication skills remain the biggest barrier for skilled migrants in terms of fitting into the local workplace, irrespective of their professional background (Reference Derwing and MunroDerwing & Munro, 2009). In the context of these communication challenges, accents also are associated with prejudice and negative stereotypes by the native speakers (Reference DerwingDerwing, 2003; Reference Lippi-GreenLippi-Green, 1997). Accordingly, non-native speakers are also likely to be viewed as less competent individuals as their accents can make it difficult to understand them, exchange information, and learn about each other (Reference Bresnahan, Ohashi, Nebashi, Liu and ShearmanBresnahan et al., 2002; Reference LindemannLindemann, 2003). Moreover, when skilled migrants become aware of these language differences, some may be more reluctant to share their ideas, or even lose self-confidence: in meetings and interviews, for example (Reference Harrison, Harrison and ShafferHarrison, Harrison, & Shaffer, 2019; Reference Lauring and KlitmøllerLauring & Klitmoller, 2017). As a result, communications challenges remain one of the major barriers in skilled migrant/local relationships.

In addition to language skills, migrant vs. non-migrant identity (i.e., including both surface and deep level characteristics) will become an important and salient basis for categorisation and easily identified social category as the source of social identity. It has been shown more recently that ‘immigrant status’ is a complex and deeply ingrained social category’ (Reference Bell, Kwesiga and BerryBell et al., 2010), easily perceived by local society and local organisations. Migrants are likely to identify with their ‘migrant identity’ based on their unique life and organisational experiences in the host country. For example, migrants share experiences of the liability of foreignness and employment challenges related to navigating the local labour market (e.g., Reference DiBenigno and KelloggDiBenigno & Kellogg, 2014; Reference Zikic and RichardsonZikic & Richardson, 2016), thus constantly seeking to learn local business norms as well as showcasing their value and uniqueness to local colleagues.

The liability of foreignness namely hazards of discrimination and unfamiliarity with skilled migrants’ foreign human capital (Reference Fang, Samnani, Novicevic and BingFang et al., 2013; Reference Luo and MeziasLuo & Mezias, 2002) also affects how migrants experience and cope with potential devaluation of their foreign credentials. While foreign degrees are often the basis for being welcomed to the local economy as skilled migrants, local employers often have doubts about its applicability and relevance in relation to the local standards, local customers and market in general (Reference Mahmud, Alam and HärtelMahmud, Alam, & Hartel, 2014). Moreover, due to devaluation of migrants’ foreign skills and experience at the time of hiring and selection, skilled migrants often end up working at lower levels compared to their original qualifications, experiencing career downshifting and underemployment (Reference Bauder and CameronBauder & Cameron, 2002; Reference Chiswick and MillerChiswick & Miller, 2012; Reference Zikic, Bonache and CerdinZikic, Bonache, & Cerdin, 2010). This lack of legitimacy afforded to the foreign credentials and experience can lead to reluctance and doubts in interactions with local co-workers and supervisors (Reference Almeida, Fernando and SheridanAlmeida, Fernando, & Sheridan, 2012); it may lead to questioning of migrants’ fit and suitability to actively contribute and participate in various meetings, collaborations, local business networks, etc. Moreover, for many skilled migrants in highly regulated professions, this devaluation or even their inability to re-enter their professions affects their sense of self and professional identity and may lead to major consequences for the person such as identity struggle, feelings of loss, and even depression (Reference Zikic and RichardsonZikic & Richardson, 2016).

Finally, while skilled migrants may need many individual resources such as resilience and proactivity to cope with many of the challenges listed above (e.g., communication difficulties, learning a new language, translating their human capital, dealing with accreditation difficulties), another key individual dimension in managing migrant lives and careers is their motivation to address these challenges as well as integrate and become part of local organisations. For example, some migrants arrive with a fear of losing a lot by coming to the host country and these individuals may have the lowest motivation to integrate, while those with the highest motivation to integrate typically believed that they have a lot to gain by migrating to the host country (Reference Cerdin, Abdul-Diné and BrewsterCerdin, Abdul-Dine, & Brewster, 2014). Similarly, skilled migrants’ initial framing and expectations may even determine the effectiveness of organisational integration policies (Reference Cerdin, Abdul-Diné and BrewsterCerdin et al., 2014) as well as how they view employment and tenure in local organisations (Reference Dietz, Joshi, Esses, Hamilton and GabarrotDietz et al., 2015).

Another source of evidence regarding skilled migrants’ motivation is found in the cross-cultural psychology literature. Reference Frieze, Hansen and BonevaFrieze, Hansen, and Boneva (2006) report that some immigrants may have higher motivation to leave their home country as well as adjust and succeed locally and this is based on what they describe as a ‘migrant personality’. These individuals are more likely to leave their home country in search of better opportunities, and they often have higher achievement and power motivation (Reference Boneva and FriezeBoneva & Frieze, 2001; Reference Frieze, Hansen and BonevaFrieze et al., 2006) to adapt locally. For example, they may experience heightened need to support their families especially during settlement and adaptation in the host country (Reference De Castro, Gee and TakeuchiDe Castro, Gee, & Takeuchi, 2008). Similar findings were reported by Reference Zikic, Bonache and CerdinZikic et al. (2010) who studied skilled migrants in three different countries. Reference Zikic, Bonache and CerdinZikic et al. (2010) concluded that some migrants do in fact exhibit very strong motivation to adapt. This group was said to have an ‘embracing’ career orientation in the host country, to be driven by the force of their subjective career and even to be challenged by the objective career barriers they were experiencing. A majority of skilled migrants however were described as ‘adaptive’ in their new career orientation (Reference Zikic, Bonache and CerdinZikic et al., 2010), that is being proactive in their adaptation efforts, while still cognisant of the barriers along the way. A small group of skilled migrants in this study, however, was defined as ‘resisting’ and these individuals could not mobilise sufficient career motivation and psychological mobility to deal with objective barriers in the labour market. Thus, a majority of skilled migrants fall into the embracing and adaptive category and this motivation may be an asset to organisations; the resisting group is a much smaller group and due to this, orientation will be less likely to engage with the job market at all, thus unlikely to come in contact with the employers. Together, the findings reviewed in this section lend support to the multifaceted nature of individual resources and how they may impact the adaptation, settlement, and careers of migrants. However, all individual level factors are intertwined with organisational, professional, social, and even more broadly societal characteristics where migrants settle.

9.3 Social Capital and Skilled Migrant Trajectories in the Host Country

A second major area of research addresses the social aspect of the migrant experience, namely the ability to obtain local social capital that will assist in learning and integrating. It is important to clarify that under social capital we consider several types of relationships (e.g., family, friendships, and professional relationships). The main challenge faced by skilled migrants is that, after they move to a new country, most of their network of contacts is simply obsolete, as their networks typically reside in their home country. Instead, many newcomers will resort to what is typically seen as the logical coping strategy, namely looking for similar others for advice and support upon arrival. Thus, they will seek social support which helps skilled migrants to more successfully face the challenges associated with settling into the local society (Reference Hobfoll, Dunahoo, Ben-Porath and MonnierHobfoll et al., 1994). In general, social support can provide immediate resources, such as understanding, information, and encouragement in the face of difficulties, and thus also creates feelings of safety (Reference Schweizer, Schnegg and BerzbornSchweizer, Schnegg, & Berzborn, 1998; Reference Walker, Wasserman, Wellman, Wasserman and GalaskiewiczWalker, Wasserman, & Wellman, 1994). This is particularly relevant in the case of migrants, due to various issues such as identity challenges and lack of established social networks and relationships in the course of their migration (Reference De Leon SiantzDe Leon Siantz, 1997; Reference Turchick Hakak, Holzinger and ZikicTurchick Hakak, Holzinger, & Zikic, 2010). As a result, migrants often gravitate towards their own ethnic community which can provide comfort and support. In other cases, this strategy can be especially challenging as it may lead to survival jobs that often detract one from their original career path (Reference Lubbers, Molina and McCartyLubbers, Molina, & McCarty, 2007).

Moreover, typically, migrant newcomers form a minority in local communities and organisations, and will seek to become part of homophilous networks (Reference IbarraIbarra, 1993): that is, they become part of the networks of similar others. Yet, these networks typically do not involve high-status contacts since the similar others who are present in organisations are usually not in positions of authority (Reference Turchick Hakak, Holzinger and ZikicTurckick Hakak et al., 2010). Moreover, these subgroups of skilled migrants may be seen as highly distinctive from majority members in organisations. And while connecting to others who may be facing similar difficulties in their transition locally can be encouraging and lead to formation of strong ties, and provide emotional support, these subgroups may also be seen as forming a ‘clique’ structure (Reference Brass, Galaskiewicz, Greve and TsaiBrass et al., 2004). These cliques may be somewhat marginalised, and even cut off from the mainstream of information, and may also seem insular to the majority employees. On the flipside, there is also some evidence that by being on the outskirts of the social networks, these employees may have more opportunities to span structural holes and even increase creativity of local units (Reference BurtBurt, 2004; Reference Harrison, Harrison and ShafferHarrison et al., 2019)

Thus, while the ties to the ethnic community and formation of homophilous networks may provide social support that acts as a buffer for many other challenges they face in their adaptation to a new country; these types of connections may not be enough in terms of migrants’ career needs. Instead, recent work on the role of local social support also finds that skilled migrants may do best when they are able to obtain both types of support, not only homophilous but also heterophilous ties (i.e., with members of the local community) (Reference Zikic and VoloshynaZikic & Voloshyna, 2018). In fact, those migrants who managed to integrate most effectively both in terms of their career as well as outside of work and later even gave back to the local community were those that merged both types of ties. Specifically, when skilled migrants not only leveraged contacts and networks from their own communities but also successfully explored, and proactively connected to, local communities and contacts in the host country, they achieved best results. Thus, a mix of ties, blended between those from one’s country of origin and locals is likely to lead to most effective adaptation and even career outcomes (Reference Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and LukBhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Overall, what is known is that social networks can both constrain as well as facilitate skilled migrant experiences. Thus, we must understand deployment of social capital (perhaps, for example, drawing on ethnic networks) vs. accumulation of new local contacts. In this context, Reference Al Ariss and SyedAl Ariss and Syed (2011) find accumulation of local social capital to be challenging, while deployment of social capital is influenced by factors such as gender and ethnicity.

In the context of relying on ethnic networks, it is also known that these contacts can sometimes be one avenue for achieving career success in the local economy, for example when they assist newcomers in starting their own business (Reference Salaff, Greve, Siu-Lun and PingSalaff et al., 2003). Thus, a lack of local social capital and an inability to obtain employment in local organisations can force immigrants to turn to entrepreneurship. Empirical evidence suggests that skilled migrants form a large proportion of the population of the founders of successful businesses (Reference Neville, Orser, Riding and JungNeville et al., 2014) and, therefore, research describes several explanations of this propensity for immigrants to become business owners. For example, business ownership is usually higher among skilled migrants who are more educated. In addition, empirical evidence shows that skilled migrants’ propensity to take a risk positively contributes to their ability to develop successful enterprises (Reference El-AssalEl-Assal, 2018). Another explanation could be found in selection and discrimination processes in local organisations that can also contribute to higher level of entrepreneurship among skilled migrants (Reference Vandor and FrankeVandor & Franke, 2016). In this case it is said that migrants may feel ‘frustrated in their goals to join the mainstream society’, and as a result they find it easier to draw on the enclave for social capital at different stages of building a business. Thus, some skilled migrants depend on social networks to establish their own businesses in the local economy (Reference BlusteinBlustein, 2017); for example, 27.5 per cent of US entrepreneurs are skilled migrants and, in addition, about ‘one-fourth of all technology and engineering companies started in the US between 2006 and 2012 had at least one immigrant co-founder’ (Reference Vandor and FrankeVandor & Franke, 2016).

Finally most recently, researchers described another fruitful avenue assisting skilled migrant integration through obtaining local social capital, has been mentoring programmes between local professionals and skilled migrant newcomers (Reference ZikicZikic, 2018; Reference Zikic and SondhiZikic & Sondhi, 2015). These types of relationships have been linked to potential job search and career assistance from local experts in the field. Moreover, when newcomers are able to connect and associate themselves with locals, some of the major challenges of adaptation and re-establishing their careers may be alleviated. In reviewing literature on the relationships between migrants and locals, whether prior to organisational entry or after, it turns out that focusing on the dyadic relationships between skilled migrants and locals may be the most important diversity integration mechanism, one that has been little understood so far (Reference ZikicZikic, 2018). Much of the literature seems to present locals vs. migrants as two opposing sides and provides evidence of discrimination, whether overt or covert depending on the social and national context (Reference Turchick Hakak and Al ArissTurchick Hakak & Al Ariss, 2013). Moreover, typically the two groups may also feel threatened by each other as skilled migrants’ (newcomers) desire to obtain much needed recognition for their foreign human capital may be met by local colleagues’ doubts and even feeling threatened, thus fearing for their established status and not knowing newcomers’ abilities (Reference Tartakovsky and WalshTartakovsky & Walsh, 2016).

However, by proposing to integrate these two seemingly opposing perspectives and focusing on the quality of the migrant/local relationships, via interventions such as mentoring, we highlight the importance of combining the conflicting nature of this relationship through focusing on what they have in common and how to achieve successful collaboration between the two. For example, both sides are seeking to achieve the same basic needs at work (for belongingness and competence), as well as meeting organisational goals, for example. As a result, recent conceptual work proposes creating and fostering opportunities for high quality connections (Reference Heaphy and DuttonHeaphy & Dutton, 2008) between foreign (i.e., skilled migrant) and local workforces (Reference ZikicZikic, 2018). Thus, we expect that through high-quality connections between skilled migrants and locals, both groups will obtain much needed opportunities for social connection, knowledge exchange, and learning from each other that will in turn: (1) ease their relational challenges and reduce uncertainty, (2) allow for a more balanced understanding of relational threats vs. benefits, and (3) enhance satisfaction of both belongingness and uniqueness needs. In fact, it is said that dyadic relationships (e.g., with co-workers, superiors, subordinates) are said to be the foundation of how individuals feel about themselves in the context of work and even the basis of their overall success in local organisations (Reference Harrison, Harrison and ShafferHarrison et al., 2019). As the most common type of work relationships, we propose that local organisations should focus their attention on improving the quality of these dyadic relationships, with special attention given to relationships and communication between skilled migrants and local employees.

9.4 Organisational Pathways towards Migrant Integration

A third major area of research regarding skilled migrant careers has been migrant integration into local organisations. Again, this topic has a dualistic character whereby the rhetoric and the onus is placed on the migrants themselves to ‘integrate’, to fit into the local business culture and the society overall. However, much less is known about local efforts to manage this type of diversity and assist integration into local organisations (e.g., Reference Harrison, Harrison and ShafferHarrison et al., 2019). Some of the current research describes potential benefits related to skilled migrant entry and integration, specifically in the context of foreign human capital being one aspect of the unique competitive advantage (Reference ZikicZikic, 2015). Yet, much of the diversity literature still finds many related barriers that prevent both skilled migrants as well as local individuals and organisations, from leveraging this unique form of human capital. On occasion, the barriers are related to individual level issues, as described earlier. Other times barriers are much more systemic and thus harder to address as they centre at the level of the organisational system, culture, local norms, and also societal attitudes.

The most common scenario, in the context of skilled migrants working alongside local employees, is that migrants will be judged as belonging to the ‘out-group’ at least based on several obvious characteristics. Skilled migrants as organisational insiders are clearly ‘newcomers’ who come from another country, also they are often but not always, demographically dissimilar, and typically end up in lower status positions or underemployed compared to their qualifications and experience. These differences in comparison with locals are often said to create a ‘perfect storm’ of ‘otherness’ (Reference MuhrMuhr, 2008). There is research to suggest that due to some of these aspects of ‘otherness’ skilled migrants may be discriminated against at the point of entry into local organisations (Reference Banerjee, Reitz and OreopoulosBanerjee, Reitz, & Oreopoulos, 2017; Reference Almeida, Fernando, Hannif and DharmageAlmeida et al., 2015). For example, Reference Almeida, Fernando and SheridanAlmeida et al. (2012) found out that instead of considering a wider pool of candidates, including skilled migrant applicants, employers often rely on well-known networks and sources that will lead to hiring from a narrow pool of candidates with qualifications, work experiences, and attributes similar to the already existing employee base. There is also evidence for a variety of challenges in terms of skilled migrant entry into local workforces, resulting from a lack of HRM know-how (for example, procedures specifically dealing with skilled migrant diversity), as well as inefficient and faulty systems and screening procedures. As a result, organisations are advised to review whether they in fact have an ‘inclusive recruitment strategy’, a recruitment philosophy that focuses on skills, as opposed to country of origin, or other candidate characteristics (Reference MourtadaMourtada, 2010); similarly, creating barrier-free job advertisements and ensuring job descriptions do not exclude any qualified candidates.

On the other hand, much less is known about the actual experiences of skilled migrants as organisational insiders. Some speculate that, based on our understanding of diversity in general, where dissimilarity may breed contempt and especially by sounding and looking different (Reference Creese and KambereCreese & Kambere, 2003), migrants may receive a more negative treatment in organisations too. For example, their status as described above may lead to stigmatisation by the dominant group and they could be seen as less worthy members of local organisations, thus receive less support from co-workers or even be trusted less (Reference Harrison, Harrison and ShafferHarrison et al., 2019). Some recent research supports these ideas that likely due to this perceived ‘otherness’, migrants may be susceptible to lower overall success as members of local organisations (Reference Fang, Samnani, Novicevic and BingFang et al., 2013; Reference Turchick Hakak, Holzinger and ZikicTurchick Hakak et al., 2010) such as unfavourable performance reviews, less training and fewer promotions, etc. Similarly, there is evidence that foreign-sounding names and even physical characteristics of migrants in the United States of America, for example, negatively impact their wages (Reference HerschHersch, 2008; Reference OreopoulosOreopoulos, 2011). Finally, migrants may encounter antagonism simply based on the competition for valuable and often limited organisational resources as well as skilled migrants being seen as a potential threat due to their foreignness, so ‘less deserving’ of these resources.

These issues between migrants and locals have been captured by the threat-benefit model (Reference Tartakovsky and WalshTartakovsky & Walsh, 2016). In this model the authors discuss how at the same time locals may perceive migrants as both beneficial and threatening for the receiving society. They may be perceived as threatening in terms of competition for resources and possibly incompatibile with the local society, while at the same time migrants may also be perceived as benefiting local society by filling vacant jobs and bringing cultural diversity to the local society. Thus, how migrants are perceived by local organisations and the resulting challenges are also closely related to the overall attitude towards migrants in the local society more broadly (Reference Tartakovsky and WalshTartakovsky & Walsh, 2016). Specifically, macro factors at the societal level, such as anti-immigration attitudes, may impact how organisational insiders feel and interact with skilled migrants inside local organisations and perhaps even intensify the challenges skilled migrants may face as insiders (Reference SyedSyed, 2008). Thus, while the three challenges discussed above distance locals and skilled migrants and impede their collaboration and integration, the threat-benefit paradigm, specifically its emphasis on the benefits, may assist in understanding how local organisations may frame and further discuss these challenges. For example, while organisations can acknowledge the potential feelings of threat by some employees, it is imperative to highlight the benefits of having skilled migrants locally and in this way create a more positive context for integration to take place. This can be done as part of diversity management training and cross-cultural intervention programmes. By diversity management is meant managerial actions aimed at either increasing diversity and inclusion or promoting amicable, productive working relationships within local organisations (Reference Jonsen, Maznevski and SchneiderJonsen, Maznevski, & Schneider, 2011). Thus, understanding and incorporating threat-benefit rhetoric into local organisations’ diversity management training, for example and programmes focusing on cross-cultural topics will produce a more balanced view of skilled migrants, while limiting extreme perceptions of threat and recognising the value and uniqueness that skilled migrants bring to the local organisation and the local society overall.

In further focusing on the ‘how’ of integration, Reference ZikicZikic (2015) applies the resource-based view of the firm as a theoretical lens to understand how skilled migrant career capital, in particular, may be the source of competitive advantage. Thus, skilled migrants may be diverse in many ways, but their uniqueness comes from the diversity of their career capital (i.e., motivation for migration, human and social capital). However, in understanding how this population can be the source of competitive advantage it is important to know the conditions or contingencies; specifically, knowing the existing internal and external context and cultural values of a particular organisation in order to judge its readiness and need to invest in creating, promoting and benefit from skilled migrant diversity (Reference Almeida, Fernando and SheridanAlmeida et al., 2012). Thus, the integration of skilled migrants requires consideration of influences related to factors already inherent in the local organisation, for example, the presence of diversity champions, or individuals who play a key role in promoting and creating a culture that leverages on diversity (Reference ThomasThomas, 2004) (e.g., modelling positive diversity values, at the top management team level, Reference 222Guillaume, Dawson, Woods, Sacramento and WestGuillaume et al., 2013). In addition to understanding organisational culture and internal support, one must also assess the external environment, for example the diversity of the community, its customers, as well as already existing organisational diversity that may influence the firm’s orientation towards skilled migrant diversity.

Finally here, Reference ZikicZikic (2015) recommends that local employers seek to establish networks in order to better tap into the skilled migrant talent pool (Reference Malik, Manroop and SinghMalik, Manroop, & Singh, 2017); for example, through creating various partnerships between local employers, policymakers, immigrant community agencies, and professional associations (Reference HabibHabib, 2011). These initiatives can be geared towards educating local leaders and employers about the value of skilled migrant career capital, as well as helping design specific procedures and more efficient ways of assessing and attracting foreign human capital. Greater cultural understanding and integration of skilled migrant newcomers may also help in creating improved team collaborations leading to more creative solutions at work (Reference Janssens and BrettJanssens & Brett, 2006).

Therefore, skilled migrants do not exist in isolation of local colleagues. In order to understand how skilled migrants cope with these contrasting needs amid local obstacles, their perspective must be understood, together with that of local colleagues with whom they must collaborate and work closely together with. Local employees are already established organisational insiders, eager to emphasise their already achieved belongingness and unique contributions to the local organisation. As a result, immigrant organisational integration is defined here as a joint effort between local organisations (local employees) and skilled migrants to create a context where at each stage of the integration process (from entry to later stages), both parties have the ability to contribute free of barriers, and to experience belongingness in every aspect of organisational life. Effective integration between skilled migrants and local employees will allow each group to grow their careers, and in this process feel respected and recognised for each other’s uniqueness. Overall, effective integration of skilled migrants has the potential to benefit both entities: (1) as skilled migrants and locals collaborate through productive working relationships, local employers and the host country can leverage migrants’ foreign capital towards enhanced competitive advantage (Reference ZikicZikic, 2015); and (2) effective integration can enhance migrants’ career success, well-being, and their overall prosperity in the host country.

9.5 Conclusions

This review provides evidence for the multifaceted nature of skilled migrant integration into local organisations and local societies. Three major themes served as an organising framework: the individual, social, and organisational domains of migrant life (summarized in Figure 9.1). Clearly in each domain we see the migrants as the focal point, both in terms of their human, social, and motivational capital as well as their role in the local labour market or local organisations. Skilled migrants are an integral part of many global economies and their pathways into those economies may also be distinct based on local laws, and the broader national context (Reference Turchick Hakak and Al ArissTurchick Hakak & Al Ariss 2013), labour policies and the general climate related to how migrants are portrayed in the local discourse (the threat vs. benefit paradigm).

Overall, one of the major dichotomies in research on migrants so far is the need to understand both local as well as migrant perspective in the process of integration. Specifically, questions arise about the responsibility of the local society (e.g., local employees) vs. migrants’ own proactivity and ability to integrate and adapt, and ‘fit’ locally. Much of the research portrays the migrants as ‘vulnerable’ or even ‘oppressed’ actors (e.g., Reference Esses, Deaux, Lalonde and BrownEsses et al., 2010), however, it is important to strike a balance in terms of understanding migrant expectations/ motivations to integrate as well as what local society may have to offer in regards to settling and trying to re-start their careers. While some countries may be known to be migrant receiving economies (with well-developed migrant settlement and integration models), there is still a need to understand both overt as well as covert factors related to discrimination from organisational entry (e.g., organisational gatekeepers) to broader integration into local community and society overall. Overall, skilled migrants are equally seen as very resilient and proactive individuals (Reference ZikicVoloshyna & Zikic, 2018; Reference Frieze, Hansen and BonevaFrieze et al., 2006) who take major career risks as a result of their cross-national moves in the hopes of better lives and career opportunities. Thus, a more nuanced portrayal and acknowledgement of local vs. migrant perspectives is needed in the hopes of obtaining a more holistic and valid understanding of skilled migrant transitions and local integration.

Much of the research focuses on the time when the migrant is already in the host country, yet it is important to understand that pre-arrival expectations and connections also play an important role in adaptation. In this context, social networks, whether local or ethnic, have received much attention and their influence on migrant pathways in local economies is a powerful one. Again, there is a dichotomy between finding local mentoring connections that can ease migrant integration into local organisations and ethnic connections that may instead reinforce migrants’ desire towards entrepreneurial careers. Thus, the role played by a variety of social factors has powerful impact on migrant integration locally. Similarly, it is important to understand that migrant social and career experiences in the host country must also be understood in the context of intersectionality of ethnicity, religion, sex, age, and physical abilities among other determinants (Reference Al Ariss, Koall, Özbilgin and SuutariAl Ariss et al., 2012).

Finally, the third aspect of migrant experience that requires much more research is related to how migrants navigate local organisations. Much of the existing research focuses on the pre-entry stage, focusing on migrants as ‘outsiders’ to local organisations, mainly navigating on the periphery of the labour market. In this context, the literature often takes the ‘normalising’ approach in that it is expected that the migrant must find a way to somehow ‘fit into’ local organisations and as a result the migrant is expected to ‘fix’ some aspects of the self (e.g., take extra training, downshift in their career, improve communication/language skills). In much of the literature, the onus to adapt and succeed in the new country is often put on the migrants, thus if they experiences challenges then they must be ‘deficient’ in some ways and need to adapt to the local norms and conditions. This one-sided view must be expanded in future research by allowing for local perspectives and a deeper understanding of the role of gatekeepers (e.g., HRM professionals, line managers, local leaders). Thus, we propose one avenue for merging these opposing sides by focusing on fostering high quality dyadic relationships as the basic building blocks that can buffer the feelings of threat, lower discrimination, and accentuate the benefits related to welcoming and integrating skilled migrants into local economies.

10.1 Introduction

Globalisation has facilitated the spread and awareness of dramatic changes in societal values and legislation, and there have been major shifts in women’s participation in the global workforce. Gender diversity in management and leadership is associated with better organisational performance and reputation (Reference Brieger, Francouer, Welzel and Ben-AmarBrieger et al., 2019; Reference Hoobler, Masterson, Nkomo and MichelHoobler et al., 2018; Reference Jeong and HarrisonJeong & Harrison, 2017). However, women continue to be under-represented in management and leadership roles worldwide, including in global mobility, and the current situation is a long way from global gender equality (Reference Eden and GuptaEden & Gupta, 2017). This warrants attention because understanding the factors that affect women and the implications for individuals and their employers is important for the advancement of research and management of global mobility.

There is debate about whether research on women in management should: (a) focus on women; (b) include diverse genders and sexualities; or (c) view gender as one category in the broader field of workforce diversity and inclusion. On one hand, scholars who study diversity and inclusion (e.g., Reference RobersonRoberson, 2019; Reference Shore, Cleveland and SanchezShore, Cleveland & Sanchez, 2018) emphasise that diversity in the global workforce includes not simply the binary categories of men and women but also diverse genders and sexualities, as well as attributes such as ethnicity, age, culture, and religion (Reference Mor BarakMor Barak 2017; Reference Kim and Von GlinowKim & Von Glinow, 2017). Managing issues that affect women at work can be seen as part of workplace inclusion, which refers to the processes that ensure everyone is accepted, respected, and able to contribute to organisational success (Reference Shore, Cleveland and SanchezShore et al., 2018). Without doubt, diversity and inclusion research has enriched our understanding of gender and of the importance of inclusion in workplaces and in society. On the other hand, scholars whose research focuses on gender have cautioned that broadening the discussion to all forms of diversity and inclusion may divert attention from, and dilute efforts to address, concerns that are specific to women (Reference Broadbridge and SimpsonBroadbridge & Simpson, 2011). For more detailed discussions about gender and management research, see Reference Broadbridge and SimpsonBroadbridge and Simpson (2011) and Reference Bullough, Moore and KalafatogluBullough, Moore and Kalafatoglu (2017). In this chapter, we focus on women in global mobility and hope to offer some insights that will inform research and practice both targeted for women in global mobility and inclusive for a diverse workforce. We argue for the importance of both targeted and inclusive policies, processes and practices, and suggest that these are complementary rather than mutually exclusive.

10.2 A Framework of Factors Affecting Women in Global Mobility

Building on previous research on women in the workforce and women’s career advancement (Reference Metz and KumraMetz & Kumra, 2019; Reference Ragins and SundstromRagins & Sundstrom, 1989), four levels of factors that affect women in global mobility can be identified: (1) societal and institutional; (2) organisational; (3) interpersonal; and (4) individual (see Figure 10.1). These factors may act either as barriers that hinder women’s global mobility or as facilitators for women. It is important to note that some factors such as stereotypes permeate multiple levels: ‘stereotypes operate at the social systems level and thereby influence the lower levels’ (Reference Peus, Braun and KnipferPeus et al., 2015: 56). Also, there will be interactions between factors at different levels. For example, in influential early research, Reference Caligiuri and CascioCaligiuri and Cascio (1998) identified four categories of antecedents for the success of female expatriates: (1) organisational support; (2) host nationals’ attitudes towards women expatriates; (3) family support; and (4) personality traits. Our framework also identifies important outcomes at each level for women in global mobility.

Figure 10.1 Framework for women in global mobility

10.3 Research Directions

Our review of the literature on women and global mobility has summarised current knowledge and identified some important gaps and areas in need of attention to improve understanding of the experiences of women and their participation in global mobility.

Numerous theoretical perspectives have been applied to research on women in global mobility. These range from theories that explain contextual forces, such as institutional theory (Reference DiMaggio and PowellDiMaggio & Powell, 1983); organisational perspectives such as upper echelon theory (Reference Hambrick and MasonHambrick & Mason, 1984); gender-based theory such as stereotyping (Reference HeilmanHeilman, 2012); interpersonal factors such as social support (Reference CohenCohen, 2004); and individual-level theories that explain attitudes and behaviours, such as social identity theory (Reference Ashforth and MaelAshforth & Mael, 1989). This is by no means a comprehensive list of theoretical perspectives that may apply to women in global mobility. Most of the theoretical frameworks applied in research to date are not specific to gender or to global mobility, which may limit the research questions being addressed. There is opportunity for future research to apply new theoretical frames and build theory to explain phenomena relevant to women in global mobility.

The literature reviewed in this chapter has focused to some extent on antecedents of women’s participation in global mobility. Future research could build more sophisticated analyses by identifying moderators and mediating relationships, as well as by further exploring the outcomes of women’s participation in global mobility. There have been increasing efforts to build cross-level research of women in global mobility and we encourage future studies to explore the connections and interactions between the four levels of factors (societal, organisational, interpersonal, and individual). Overall, the focus of research is moving from barriers for women to identifying ways in which organisations can accommodate difference in aspiration, preference, and motivation across the globally mobile workforce.

Future research on women and global mobility could be shaped in several ways:

1. 1. Applying relevant theoretical perspectives and developing new theoretical frames;

2. 2. Bringing together knowledge from different fields such as anthropology, gender studies, health, international human resource management, and psychology;

3. 3. Designing cross-level research to investigate the inter-relationships between societal and institutional, organizational, interpersonal, and individual influences and outcomes;

4. 4. Utilising innovative and rigorous research design and methods, particularly to test interventions to advance women’s careers, and using longitudinal studies; and

5. 5. Building comparative studies of inclusive and gender-specific practices that account for contextual differences in national culture, industry, and organisational characteristics.

Some directions for future research and illustrative research questions are suggested in Table 10.1.

10.4 Practical Implications

In the following sections 10.4.1–10.4.4 give recommendations, we offer recommendations at societal, organisational, interpersonal, and individual levels.

10.5 Conclusions

It is in the best interests of scholars, managers, employees, and communities to make sense of and understand the complexities in research and practice relevant to women in global mobility. While there has been progress for women in global mobility, there are enduring problems, challenges, and opportunities for researchers, managers, and individuals to address. We share a responsibility to debate and investigate, monitor and measure, and to work on solutions. Learning from issues that are specific to women will help us to work with all forms of diversity and to build more inclusive organisations.

11.1 Introduction

As the world economy becomes more intertwined and trade barriers decline, the global mobility of human talent has increased. Despite the high costs of international assignees and the increased variety of global employees (Reference Shaffer, Kraimer, Chen and BolinoShaffer et al., 2012), multinational firms around the world continue to send expatriates and their families to live and work in foreign countries. These assigned expatriates are sent by their employer to live and work in a foreign country for at least one year to complete a specific task, with the expectation that they will repatriate to the home country (Reference Harrison, Shaffer and Bhaskar-ShrinivasHarrison et al., 2004). As barriers restricting the movement of human resources have also decreased, an increasing number of expatriates are self-initiated employees who generally sponsor their own relocation and that of their family to a foreign country (Reference Suutari and BrewsterSuutari & Brewster, 2000). The majority of assigned and self-initiated expatriates (commonly referred to as expatriates in the rest of this chapter) relocate with family members, who are both a source of support as well as a concern. Indeed, it is the family that is credited for being responsible for most failed international assignments (Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2016).

Given the critical role of families to expatriate success (Reference Erogul and RahmanErogul & Rahman, 2017; Reference Haslberger and BrewsterHaslberger & Brewster, 2008; Reference WebbWebb, 1996), researchers have included family members in studies since the 1980s, and for every decade since then, partner and family adjustment has been a recurrent theme in the expatriate literature (Reference Kraimer, Bolino and MeadKraimer, Bolino & Mead, 2016). Drawing on Black, Mendenhall and Oddou’s (Reference Black, Mendenhall and Oddou1991) model of international adjustment, early scholars interested in the role of expatriate families focused on partner adjustment (e.g., Reference Black and GregersenBlack & Gregersen, 1991a, Reference Black and Gregersen1991b; Reference Shaffer and HarrisonShaffer & Harrison, 2001), defined in terms of comfort with the general cultural environment (i.e., cultural adjustment) and with interacting with host country nationals (i.e., interaction adjustment). As confirmed by meta-analytic evidence of various anticipatory, individual, job, organisational and nonwork factors associated with expatriate adjustment, partner adjustment is the strongest input to expatriate cultural adjustment and it has a significant influence on both expatriate work and interaction adjustment (Reference Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and LukBhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005).

Except for a couple of early studies on expatriate family adjustment (e.g., Reference Caligiuri, Hyland and JoshiCaligiuri, Hyland, & Joshi, 1998; Reference Caligiuri, Hyland and JoshiCaligiuri et al., 1998), research on this topic is more nascent but growing. In fact, there are now two recent reviews of this burgeoning literature that provide good insights into the functioning of the expatriate family (Reference Goede and BergGoede & Berg, 2018; Reference Sterle, Fontaine, de Mol and VerhofstadtSterle et al., 2018). In reviewing the literature on expatriate family outcomes, Reference Goede and BergGoede and Berg (2018) developed a multi-level framework of environmental, organisational, and family determinants of various family outcomes before, during, and after the assignment. Interestingly, in their list of individual family characteristics, the adjustment of individual family members is not included. This omission is striking given the predominant focus in the literature on expatriate adjustment and the important role of partner adjustment in this process. Furthermore, only a few scholars have looked at the relationship between partner adjustment and family-related variables (e.g., Reference Ali, Van der Zee and SandersAli, Van derZee, & Sanders 2003; Reference Gupta, Banerjee and GaurGupta, Banerjee, & Guar 2012; Reference Ramos, Mustafa and HaddadRamos et al., 2017; Reference Shaffer and HarrisonShaffer & Harrison, 2001; Reference Takeuchi, Yun and TeslukTakeuchi et al., 2002; Reference Van der Zee, Ali and Salomevan der Zee, Ali, & Salome 2005; Reference Van Erp, Giebels, van der Zee and van Duijnvan Erp et al., 2011a, Reference Van Erp, Giebels, van der Zee and van Duijn2011b). Recognising that the expatriate partner is the lynchpin of expatriate success, and wanting to better understand the partner’s adjustment to the foreign culture, we chose to conduct an in-depth review of the empirical expatriate partner adjustment literature.

11.2 Review of Empirical Literature on Expatriate Partner Adjustment

To identify manuscripts that included the term ‘expatriate partner adjustment’, we searched several databases: PsycINFO, Google Scholar, ABI-Inform, and Web of Science. Keywords included ‘expatriate’ or ‘international assignee’ plus ‘adjustment’ and ‘spouse’, ‘partner’, ‘family’, or ‘children’. After screening these for papers that conceptualised or assessed expatriate partner adjustment, we ended up with twenty-five empirical articles, including twenty quantitative articles, three qualitative articles, and two mixed method articles.

To facilitate our review of this literature, we identified all significant variables associated with expatriate partner adjustment and well-being (see Table 11.1). For partner adjustment, we differentiated three forms that have dominated the partner adjustment literature: expatriate partner personal adjustment, interaction adjustment, and cultural adjustment. Expatriate partner personal adjustment refers to belonging to or becoming a part of the foreign environment (Reference Shaffer and HarrisonShaffer & Harrison, 2001); partner interaction adjustment is defined in terms of relationships or interpersonal interactions with host country nationals; and partner cultural adjustment refers to adaptation to environmental or situational conditions (Reference Black, Mendenhall and OddouBlack, et al., 1991). We also grouped various indicators of partner well-being (i.e., psychological adjustment, life satisfaction, and overall partner adjustment) to form a fourth category.

In categorising the variables significantly associated with expatriate partner adjustment and well-being, we first separated them into three major categories that represented partner, expatriate, and family aspects. For the partner category, we then identified various personal (i.e., demographic, traits, knowledge/skills/abilities/others, and attitudes/cognitions), relational, organisational, and assignment factors. For the expatriate category, we formed two groupings: personal and job/assignment factors. For the family variables, we separated them based on the source of the rating (i.e., partner or expatriate). Through our analysis of these detected relationships, we observed three major themes: crossover occurrences from partners to expatriates, the relationship between the partner and family dynamics, and under-researched topics relevant to partner adjustment. For each theme, we discuss what we currently know (or don’t know), relevant theoretical perspectives to advance our knowledge in these areas and suggestions for future research.

11.3 Where Do Researchers Go from Here?

Based upon our review of the expatriate partner literature, we propose four directions for future research. First, we encourage scholars to identify the specific mechanisms and boundary conditions that explain the influence of partner adjustment on expatriates’ work and nonwork outcomes. Although we noted consistent positive relationships between partner adjustment and expatriates’ work performance and adjustment, more empirical evidence is needed to identify the distinct psychological and emotional mechanisms linking these crossover effects (Reference Lazarova, Westman and ShafferLazarova et al., 2010). Future research could apply additional theoretical foundations to elucidate the intricate processes linking partners’ cross-cultural experiences and expatriates’ adjustment and work consequences. For example, the work-home resources model (Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker, Reference Ten Brummelhuis and Bakker2012), which illustrates how work and home resources influence each other through different theoretical paths, may offer a suitable theoretical framework that facilities our understanding of how partners’ adjustment contributes to expatriates’ success in their international assignments.

Second, we suggest that the role of expatriate children is a key factor for expatriate scholars to examine. As indicated, research into how children’s adjustment determines expatriates’ adjustment or work performance is still lacking. Future researchers should pay more attention to children’s adjustment and explore the two research questions echoed in the qualitative findings of Reference Mohr and KleinMohr and Klein (2004): why is children’s adjustment a double-edged sword when it comes to expatriate partners’ adjustment? How could we advance the positive effects and buffer the negative effects of children’s adjustment in this context? Further, when also considering expatriates’ adjustment, we could raise another question: how does the adjustment of expatriates, their partners, and their children intertwine with each other and lead to different positive and negative outcomes for the expatriate family as a whole, as well as for individual family members? Examining these questions theoretically and empirically will enrich the literature and clarify the role of children more thoroughly in global families.

A third future direction is to compare the experiences of male and female expatriates’ partners. Future researchers could apply gender-related theories to specify the common challenges for both genders of expatriate partners as well as the gender-specific challenges. Identifying gender-specific challenges is especially critical, as prior research has suggested these differences are significant and calls for more research to address this issue (e.g., Reference HarrisHarris, 2004; Reference Linehan, Scullion and CollingsLinehan, 2006; Reference Selmer and LeungSelmer & Leung, 2003). Therefore, researchers and practitioners should not neglect the gender-related issues for partners and, in fact, we encourage them to consider these issues across all phases of the assignment, including repatriation.

Fourth, we suggest that future studies should focus more on the family level and examine the well-being, functioning or challenges of the family as a whole. This approach will not only expand our understanding of the global family but it will also contribute to the literature by integrating individual- and family-level factors. We also want to highlight that scholars need to categorise expatriate family well-being in terms of their relocation status. That is, the demands, needed resources, and work and family outcomes for co-located and separated families could be different. For example, families that relocate together on an assignment may need more cross-cultural training during the different stages of expatriation and direct assistance for settling down in the host country. Partners who do not relocate with the expatriate may also benefit from additional support and training so the partner is cognisant of what the expatriate is experiencing, and they have resources that will help them cope with the absence of their partner.

11.4 What Can Organisations Do To Help Expatriate Partners and Families Thrive?

Our review of expatriate partners hints at several practical implications for organisations. First, research confirms the crossover effects of partners’ adjustment and well-being on expatriates’ adjustment, well-being, job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Reference Chen and ShafferChen & Shaffer, 2018; Reference Shaffer and HarrisonShaffer & Harrison, 1998). Thus, organisations should invest in supporting expatriate partners to ensure that they effectively adjust to all aspects of the international assignment. Understanding and personalising the support that partners may need is of critical importance, as every situation is different. Some partners are experiencing role changes by quitting jobs in the home country and taking on full responsibility for the family while on assignment; others may be struggling with elder care responsibilities and/or special needs children. By taking into consideration the individual needs of expatriate partners, organisations will be able to better facilitate partners’ adjustment and success in living and even possibly working in the foreign country. Advantages will accrue to the organisations in that the positive experiences of expatriate partners will cross over to expatriates and facilitate their satisfaction, productivity, and retention on the assignment and with the organisation.

Second, we encourage organisations to consider the gender differences of expatriate partners when initiating partner and family support programmes. Although the research findings are scarce, our review demonstrates that male and female partners may encounter different gender-related challenges in the host country. For example, male partners may have specific needs when adjusting to living, and possibly working, in another country. This is especially the case when male partners are stay-at-home-parents during the assignment as they may suffer an identity crisis and experience some unique challenges as a minority among expatriate partners (who are mostly female). Organisations need to address these gender-related difficulties of expatriate partners and launch unique workshops, policies, support packages, and even consulting support to ensure that expatriate partners are receiving the right support at the right time. In doing so, organisations are highly likely to help expatriate partners face the challenges of living in a foreign culture, increase their levels of adjustment and further benefit expatriates’ adjustment and well-being.

Third, we suggest that organisations take all stakeholders into consideration including the partner and children who relocate with the expatriate as well as extended family members who remain at home but may need extra care. This emphasis on the entire family is important, as organisations will actively evaluate the family’s needs as a whole, as well as the specific support that each stakeholder in the family may request or need. Taking the whole family into consideration throughout the initiation and implementation of expatriate family support programmes will improve considerably the efficiency and effectiveness of the assistance, thereby the whole family’s functioning and well-being will be enhanced. Consequently, organisations will facilitate positive and successful work and personal experiences for expatriates and their families.

11.5 Conclusions

Based on our review of the expatriate partner adjustment literature, it is clear that expatriate partners are a critical resource in facilitating the success of expatriate assignments. However, despite more than three decades of research on expatriate partner adjustment, there is still much that we do not know about this phenomenon. In addition to further examining various aspects of expatriate partner adjustment, such as identities, gender, and career-related issues, it is also time to focus attention on a wider range of stakeholders in the expatriate process. We agree with scholars who have advocated the adoption of a more holistic approach towards understanding the family, and we encourage researchers to consider all family members, including children, in studies of expatriate family adjustment and functioning.

Because the vast majority of research on the partners and families of global employees focuses on expatriates and the lack of relevant research for the partners of other forms of global employees, we limited our review to the expatriate population. However, with increasing forms of global employees (Reference Shaffer, Kraimer, Chen and BolinoShaffer et al., 2012), each of which faces unique challenges regarding families, we also encourage researchers to investigate the partners and other family members of global employees, such as international business travellers and short-term assignees (see Chapter 7). It seems that the partners, and other family members, of these more recent types of global employees have become the new ‘forgotten families’ of international human resource research and practice.

12.1 Introduction

This chapter explores the pressures that global mobility (GM) is facing, provides insights into the roles of GM departments and develops a refined GM model to successfully cope with mobility challenges. Notwithstanding some of the limitations that diverse contexts, diverging managerial objectives, lacking GM capabilities, and implementation difficulties present, it can be argued that smart, agile, flawless, and efficient GM work (SAFE GM) is at the core of a successful GM department. Smart organizational development and talent management; Agile approaches to embrace a multitude of GM challenges successfully; Flawless design of programme management and compliance approaches; and Efficient ways to structure GM rewards, are leading to a professionalization of global mobility work. Some of the drawbacks to this practice-focussed, managerial approach are explored towards the end of the chapter. Basing the discussion on the general literature on HR roles, and in particular on the ideas of David Reference UlrichUlrich (1997, 1998) it can be held that enacting this SAFE GM framework will strengthen the position of GM departments in their organizations. This chapter addresses the following questions: Why and how do we need to rethink GM to enable it to master its future? What roles do GM professionals enact to refine their work and to make working abroad more attractive?

12.2 HR Department Roles and Their Link to Global Mobility

Global Mobility in its many forms (Reference Baruch, Dickmann, Altman and BournoisBaruch, Dickmann, Altman & Bournois, 2013) is growing strongly and there is a substantial interest in exploring the broad phenomena associated with it (Reference Dickmann, Wilkinson, Redman and DundonMcNulty & Selmer, 2017). Interest has focused on individuals and organizations and the context that globally mobile individuals such as company-sponsored and self-initiated assignees are embedded in (Reference Bonache, Brewster and SuutariBonache, Brewster & Suutari, 2001; Reference Mäkelä, Suutari, Brewster, Dickmann and TornikoskiFroese & Peltokorpi, 2013; Suutari & Brewster, 2000). It has also explored macro-level issues such as institutions or macro-talent management (Reference Andresen, Al Ariss, Walther, Andresen, Al Ariss and WaltherAndresen, Al Ariss & Walther, 2013; Reference Vaiman, Sparrow, Schuler and CollingsVaiman et al., 2019). Within organizations, research has often focussed on the journey that assignees undertake which has been charted as the expatriate cycle (Reference Harris, Brewster and SparrowHarris, Brewster & Sparrow, 2003). Fundamentally, however, the focus is often on how to manage assignees and is reflected in work concentrating on the selection of expatriates (Harris & Brewster, 1999; Reference CaligiuriCaligiuri, 2013), global talent management (Reference Collings, Scullion and CaligiuriCollings, Scullion & Caligiuri, 2018), cultural adjustment (Reference Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and WaltonBlack & Gregersen, 1991; Reference Davies, Kraeh and FroeseDavies, Kraeh & Froese, 2015; Reference Haslberger, Brewster and HipplerHaslberger, Brewster & Hippler, 2013), their career journey and management (Reference Andresen, Al Ariss, Walther, Andresen, Al Ariss and WaltherAndresen et al., 2013; Reference Dickmann, Suutari and WurtzDickmann, Suutari & Wurtz, 2018), and performance management (Reference Engle, Dowling and FestingEngle, Dowling & Festing, 2008), or repatriation (Reference UlrichLazarova & Cerdin, 2007). However, the roles of global mobility departments have been relatively neglected.

While we have only emerging insights into the structures and roles of GM departments, these are highly interlinked with broad human resource (HR) activities within the organization. There is a long-standing interest in exploring what HR functions do and what roles they have (Beer et al., 1984). It has long been argued that the value added by an HR function depends on the complexity of interaction. Reference HeskethHesketh (2006) argues that these include (in order of diminishing value add): first, corporate governance services (HR strategy, employment relations, strategic workforce planning); second, professional and advisory services (learning management, change management consulting, global mobility); third, employment services (recruitment and selection, training administration); and fourth, more transactional services (payroll administration, relocation services, employment data changes). The reader will notice that GM activities are part of the overall remit of HRM and are predominantly located in the professional and advisory as well as transactional service categories.

One of the most influential authors with respect to the roles and structures of HR departments is David Ulrich. His argument is rooted in the basic observation that all functions in an organization strive to strengthen the competitive position of it. Given the rapid changes in the competitive contexts of firms, it is argued that human capital has become increasingly important to create valuable, non-substitutional, difficult to copy and rare resources (Reference Ambrosini and BowmanAmbrosini & Bowman, 2009; Reference Barney and ClarkBarney & Clark, 2007; Reference Sparrow, Hird, Hesketh and CooperSparrow et al., 2010). Therefore, the function of HR, its roles and how it is organized, is crucial for the competitive position of a firm (Reference Becker, Huselid, Pickus and SprattBecker et al., 1997, Reference Wright, Dunford and SnellWright, Dunford & Snell, 2001). Reference UlrichUlrich (1998) holds that HR is the key to sustainable competitive advantage.

In particular, Ulrich’s ideas on the roles of HR departments have found enthusiastic followers amongst practitioners and have shaped the structural organization of the people function in many firms (Reference FriedmanFriedman, 2007; CIPD, 2007; Reference Brockbank and UlrichBrockbank & Ulrich, 2009). In his writing Ulrich had made a strong case about the dangers of HR working as administrators and showing little leadership in supporting the achievement of strategic business objectives. The call for refocussing HR’s operating model towards a model of business partnering has led to many attempts by HR professionals to increase their agility and value to the business. It has also meant that HR experts had to rethink the competencies needed to be successful in their role and to support their employer more effectively (Reference Brockbank and UlrichBrockbank & Ulrich, 2009; Reference CaldwellCaldwell, 2008; Reference UlrichUlrich, 1998).

So what does the ‘Ulrich Model’ entail? In general, it calls for a re-orientation towards closer cooperation with other business functions and a concentration on business-relevant outcomes. This means that HR needs to move out of its cocoon where it concentrated on administrative delivery and people results. The argument is driven by the insight that the value of pure administrative activities is often seen as low (Reference Sparrow, Hird, Hesketh and CooperSparrow et al., 2010) and that errors in non-complex activities can easily lead to a disregard of the function and a loss in reputation. Instead, HR professionals need to understand the more important, often strategic, goals of the organization and develop approaches of how to support the business in achieving these (Reference Brockbank and UlrichBrockbank & Ulrich, 2009). In order to do so, Reference UlrichUlrich (1997) initially outlined four roles for HR functions.

Strategic Partner. This role consists of understanding the company’s key strategic objectives and how HR can help to achieve them. Thus, HR needs to be aligned to the business strategy in order to acquire, develop, and sustain the right human resource capabilities. Thus, HR professionals need to have the competencies required to diagnose their firm’s competitive environment. Based on this diagnosis HR should create and sustain adequate HR policies and practices that support organizational priorities (Reference UlrichUlrich, 1997). If HR leaders manage to do this they are often seen to ‘earn a seat at the top table’.

Figure 12.1 The original Ulrich model, Reference UlrichUlrich, 1997 p. 24

Change Agent. This role consists of building capacity for change in the firm. It is argued that all employees need to accept the necessity of change in highly dynamic industries where the competitive pressures are intense and new developments occur almost on a daily basis. HR professionals need to understand how successful change is delivered, should have the capability to help change leaders to devise communication strategies, should be able to identify change resistance and to deal with change resistors. In addition, they should aim to build trust in order to help change agents to implement change plans successfully (Reference UlrichUlrich, 1997). This role consists of understanding good change management, preparing the organization for change and working together with change leaders.

Employee Champion. This role aims to enhance employee engagement, to build staff capability and to plan work to give individuals the opportunity to use their knowledge and skills. While the role of employee champion is implicitly modelled on the ability, motivation, and opportunity (AMO) framework, it necessitates identifying employee grievances and to deal with these. Reference UlrichUlrich (1997) argues that HR functions need to actively engage with employees. Motivated, committed, and capable individuals are seen to be a cornerstone of dynamic capabilities which would achieve sustained competitive advantage.

Administrative Expert. This role consists of being an efficient and effective administrator, either of internal administrative processes or as the manager of outsourcing relationships. It is clear that HR departments undertake a large number of administrative responsibilities (Reference Dickmann and TysonDickmann & Tyson, 2005). These should be analysed and, if needed, improved or even totally re-engineered in order to reduce costs and increase administrative effectiveness (Reference UlrichUlrich, 1997).

The drive to decrease administrative costs has often led to the establishment of shared service centres and the development of HR structures that consist of three parts. The first part of this ‘three-legged stool’ is shared service centres. Shared services deal with many administrative HR issues and are highly process-driven. Given that certain administrative tasks can be clearly defined and that task specialization and information-technology support is normally able to keep costs low, firms have mostly opted to centralize these in shared service centres. However, one of the disadvantages of this structure is that HR personnel working in these centres find it hard to acquire general HR skills and insights and, subsequently, are often faced with career barriers when they want to progress to work on other HR activities (Reference Hird, Sparrow, Marsh, Sparrow, Hird, Hesketh and CooperHird, Sparrow & Marsh, 2010: 32–42). The second leg consists of HR professionals working as HR business partners. Business partners have a primary function to aid the organization in the achievement of its objective and their job description and activities most often include both strategic partner and change agent roles. They are distributed across the organization as sub-units, such as production plants, where they also need HR partnering services. The third leg consists of units that develop specialized HR approaches and tools such as performance management, career and training & development systems. These systems normally benefit from being based on company-wide competency frameworks. These HR professionals are often located in centres of excellence and expertise where they work on capability management (Reference Sparrow, Hird, Hesketh and CooperSparrow et al., 2010, p. 27).

In subsequent years, Ulrich, together with other co-authors such as Brockbank, has further developed this model and has distinguished five reconfigured roles: strategic partner, functional expert, human capital developer, employee advocate, and HR leader (Reference Ulrich and BrockbankUlrich & Brockbank, 2005). While this makes much sense for the HR function overall (it is larger and has more need for leadership and development of HR professionals), the roles are either more highly integrated or more clearly delineated – the HR leader role extends into the GM function and may to some extent supersede or supplicate the role of the GM leader. This is particularly the case in terms of development and career decisions within the whole HR team. For the GM field, however, there continues to be a strong relevance of distinguishing strategic and operational dimensions as well as people and process areas. Despite some of the criticism in terms of how to successfully design and implement HR roles based on Ulrich’ ideas (Reference Sparrow, Hird, Hesketh and CooperSparrow et al., 2010), the three-legged stool and other business outcome oriented HR approaches are highly popular (CIPD, 2007). How the original Ulrich model has been an inspiration in the realm of GM is outlined below.

I will consider the future of global mobility and the necessary changes using three perspectives. First, the mobility functions as being a substantial partner in creating organizational and international value. Second, I explore implications arising from the broader company context and its stakeholders. These two perspectives are closely aligned to Ulrich’s arguments. Third, I want to concentrate on the drivers of global value, the employees and their varying interests and capabilities. Overall, therefore, the perspectives on GM loosely mirror the thrust of the resource-based view of the firm (Reference BarneyBarney, 1991) and how it seeks to achieve sustainable competitive advantage through dynamic capabilities (Reference BarneyBarney, 2001; Reference Bowman and VéroniqueBowman & Ambrosini, 2000).

Information with respect to the roles of GM departments are sparse. Some authors imply roles for GM departments through describing some of the activities that these professionals undertake. The expatriate cycle (Reference Harris, Brewster and SparrowHarris et al., 2003) delivers a temporal perspective on expatriate management, depicting an assigned expatriates’ journey starting before departure and ending after the assignee returns ‘home’ or moves to another destination. Reference Dickmann and BaruchDickmann and Baruch (2011) have further refined the expatriation cycle by strengthening the strategic planning and assessment elements of the GM programme as well as integrating the mutual dependency perspective called for by Reference LarsenLarsen (2004). Thus, they depict individual and organizational expatriation phases and their interlinkages (see Figure 12.2).

Figure 12.2 A strategic, long-term, and interactive perspective on international work activities

Source: based on Reference Dickmann, Wilkinson, Redman and DundonDickmann, 2017.

Figure 12.2’s strengths lie in depicting the expatriation journey and some of the key, interrelated activities associated with the various phases. While it covers a multitude of activities it necessarily has to focus on some of the key expatriation management policies and practices. Crucially, it only indicates that these activities (should) occur but rarely specifies the associated GM goals and their link to wider organizational objectives. Thus, a more nuanced framework of the roles of GM departments and their associated goals is needed.

12.3 GM Department at Cross-Roads: Emerging GM Roles and Their Key Aims

Because the available information in the academic literature is so limited, much of the discussion below is based on data and insights from a large community of GM professionals (https://theresforum.com/)Footnote ¹. At the time of writing, The RES Forum was a network of 740 corporations in over 40 countries. It had approximately 1500 members who were all GM professionals, predominantly Head of GM or Head of Global Rewards. The research amongst the RES Forum member has found that in most multinational corporations (MNCs) mobility work is strongly processed and due diligence oriented to the detriment of strategic work or talent management (RES Forum, 2017). In addition, activities that concentrate on understanding the drivers and experiences of expatriation candidates were also rare (RES Forum, 2018). In essence, GM experts seem to concentrate on operational expatriation processes aiming for streamlining these activities to achieve cost savings. In addition, they are fulfilling some strategic work, for instance when GM experts liaise with other functions in relation to the underlying corporate motivations for expatriation (Reference HipplerEdström & Galbraith, 1977). However, strategic work elements tend to be underrepresented and certainly GM leaders want to increase these over time (RES Forum, 2018). In addition, the GM people dimension could also be strengthened. While GM staffs are often involved in the selection of international assignees, this continues to be an area where they could become more evidence-guided and more sophisticated (Harris & Brewster, 1999; Reference CaligiuriCaligiuri, 2013; Reference Dowling, Festing and EngleDowling, Festing, & Engle 2013). Strengthening the strategic and people aspects of GM work could make GM departments more effective and could lead to a higher degree of professionalization. These are some of the roles that would give GM departments a broader, yet more focused purpose, allow it to strengthen the experience of assignees and add to the value creation of GM work. In essence, this would mean that GM departments find themselves in a similar situation as HR departments in the past – they may benefit from analysing the original Ulrich ideas, adapting them to the GM context and their purpose and from implementing these to become more strategic and people-oriented. In short, GM departments are at cross-roads where they need to rethink global mobility.

What do these insights mean in broad terms and how can global mobility be advanced to make it fit for the future? Rethinking global mobility is driven by some key trends and drivers. In the following section I reflect on four fundamental GM roles.

12.3.1 Role 1: Agile Global Mobility Created Through Strategic Advice

GM leaders need to develop agility to align and support their business and HR strategies, to develop value, and to adapt quickly to changing organizational needs. Technological advances, automation, artificial intelligence and robots, the need for new skill sets and dynamic operating models are all expressions of the rapid changes in the business environment (Reference BaderBader, 2019). These developments make it necessary to find feasible ways to adapt to them and to harness the opportunities for the organization. Constantly changing requirements, which are already varying among different stakeholders, make it necessary to provide flexibility for assignments.

The key value of GM is related to broader business and people management objectives (Reference Dowling, Festing and EngleDowling, Festing & Engle, 2013; Reference Edström and GalbraithEdstöm & Galbraith, 1977). On a highly strategic level, aligning GM to business and HR strategies in order to enable and support them is highly important. These often embody key objectives such as the control of the business units, cultural integration across borders, knowledge creation, transfer and application, or enabling certain work activities through filling positions. To successfully advance the agility and flexibility of international work in organizations, GM professionals need to fill the role of strategic advisor and to understand the manifold ramifications of their organization’s strategy and the diverse GM avenues that could be pursued to realize their MNC’s ambition. Figure 12.3 gives an overview of the breadth of GM tasks and recommendations on how to advance GM excellence. The figure outlines all the SAFE areas and depicts the various roles of GM professionals. While agility refers to the strategic advisor role there are spill-over effects into the other quadrants as the other roles would also benefit from the flexibility to master emerging challenges.

Figure 12.3 SAFE roles of global mobility: managing international work with a purpose

In practice, this means that GM professionals have to identify ways how mobility strategies underpin organization-wide strategies. In addition, GM departments need to develop policies that facilitate agility. This might mean, for instance, to develop ‘core flex’ approaches and to create flexible governance approaches that incorporate agility in relation to exception management. Agility will also go a long way to future proof GM and may be expressed in other quadrants of Figure 12.3. Younger generations entering the labour market will likely drive a change in more flexible remuneration approaches, which will also have an influence on compensation and benefits in GM. Dealing with agility in GM means to plan for crisis responses, develop scenarios and approaches to refine the corporate reaction to events such as terrorist attacks or natural disasters. This can include, for example, a cost saving scenario or the plans for potential group relocations (e.g., in the light of Brexit). It will be necessary to stay close to the business and its stakeholders to understand their changing needs and future aspirations. The bottom line is to be prepared as much as possible for potential future demands.

12.4 Global Mobility with a Compelling Purpose

There is a mutual dependency between assignees and their employers (Reference LarsenLarsen, 2004). Organizations highly depend on the quality of their international workers while assignees may find themselves ‘high and dry’ in certain situations in their host environments, especially in hostile or crisis contexts (Reference Bader and BergBader & Berg, 2013; Reference Gannon and ParaskevasGannon & Paraskevas, 2019). So far, the GM purpose has been predominantly seen through the employer lens and especially incorporates the strategic and operational process dimensions of Figure 12.3.

The value for the organization in determining its key mobility objectives and how GM can support organization-wide strategies have been discussed under the strategic advisor role. However, it is important to go beyond a strategic level to look at the vision of the organization and to long term goals that are attractive to individuals which they can identify with and that give them purpose (Reference Mäkelä, Suutari, Brewster, Dickmann and TornikoskiOrdoñez de Pablos & Tennyson, 2016; RES Forum, 2018). Working abroad will change the psychological contract of assignees and their expectations (Reference Conway and BrinerConway & Briner, 2005; Reference Dowling, Festing and EngleDowling et al., 2013). In terms of the GM programme designer role, letting people down in terms of compliance or security issues will fundamentally rock their relationship with their employers and will have a detrimental effect on their global work and identification with the organization.

The implications are complex and wide-ranging. The intended role and objective of an assignment will have to be analysed in the sense of delivering purpose to the organization and providing purpose to the individual. Thus, corporate motivations such as knowledge transfer, skills gap filling, control and coordination (Reference HipplerEdström & Galbraith, 1977) will need to be aligned to the mindset and motivations of assignees. More broadly, even if the MNC has a purpose statement, it might well make sense to define a team purpose for mobility that is aligned with the company vision and objectives. Some authors in the generational literature argue that purpose is the new currency for creating attraction, retention, and an engaged workforce (Reference DowningDowning, 2006; Reference Mäkelä, Suutari, Brewster, Dickmann and TornikoskiOrdoñez de Pablos & Tennyson, 2016).

12.5 Global Mobility – Focussing on Assignee Experience

Mobility teams need to engage in the purpose of creating positive assignee experiences. A paradigm shift is already happening in HR and HR transformations. In the past they predominantly focused on cost savings and reducing cycle times. Now they are looking at the effectiveness and, not exclusively, the efficiency of change interventions. Treating compliance as a hygiene factor will support the shift towards purposeful GM that aims to enrich the private and professional lives of assignees.

International assignments are undisputedly one of the most significant experiences employees can have during their careers. It involves their families and creates great learning and developmental opportunities when living and working in other cultural contexts. Where assignees (and their organizations) avoid or overcome the risks associated with working abroad (such as culture shock, work-life imbalance, family separation), it has been shown that their career progression, talent development, and marketability is highly positive (Reference Suutari, Brewster, Mäkelä, Dickmann and TornikoskiSuutari et al., 2018). This is why Global Mobility needs to focus on employee experiences and how to enhance them.

Assuming a relatively flawless programme design, the experience element of GM is mostly shaped by the people dimension of Figure 12.3. It includes the range of activities that were discussed under the roles of global talent manager and global people effectiveness expert. To put this into practice would mean taking a closer look at all the interactions that an employee (and their families) experience during their journey along the expatriate cycle. It would further involve checking how positive experiences look and how negative perceptions are created. This also involves an analysis of the assignee experience with the many external service providers.

Furthermore, the host teams and host mentors have a strong impact on how an expatriate feels, adjusts to the local culture, and performs (Reference Toh and DeNisiToh & DeNisi, 2005; Reference Carraher, Sullivan and CrocittoCarraher, Sullivan & Crocitto, 2008). Overall, it would be good to engage as many stakeholders as possible in the search for a good global mobility experience. One step would be to explore what these stakeholders believe has scope for improvement. In practice, mobility departments are often seen as forces onto themselves which operate in separation to other company functions. The argument above strongly implies that GM departments will need to think and live out of their silos, engage with talent management and other stakeholders, understand the purpose and objectives of the assignment, and distinguishing different and alternative forms of global work that are aligned with purpose and that create valued experiences.

12.6 Limitations

This chapter has depicted a simplified, homogenous and idealised picture of what the role of a GM department could entail. It has been deliberately presented this picture in order to draw up the SAFE framework that may inspire global mobility professionals. Nevertheless, this carries a range of limitations.

A simplified approach. MNCs are highly complex organizations that operate by definition on a number of different country contexts. This means that their institutional environments differ and that the environments that expatriates and other global workers face vary. For instance, it may include safe and hostile environments as well as contexts that are more or less welcoming to international workers (Reference Fee, McGrath-Champ and BertiFee, McGrath-Champ & Berti, 2019). This is likely to signify that a one size fits all GM approach does not suit all these different conditions. In addition, the different types of globally mobile workers – for instance including international business travellers or cross-border commuters – can create pressures for many diverse GM approaches (Reference Baruch, Dickmann, Altman and BournoisBaruch et al., 2013). While the agile quadrant of the SAFE framework tries to take account of this, the complexity and dynamism in the environment and the manifold demands from individuals, organizations, and institutions may just be too varied to achieve alignment in the various host environments.

A homogenous view. The chapter has treated MNCs as unitary units. However, there are actually many fractions in organizations. We have assumed that there is one vision on the way that MNCs want to achieve competitive advantage neglecting potential differences between local and global goals, counteracting pressures between different business units or potential gaps between the objectives of senior leaders in the MNC and GM managers. In addition, there are some overlaps in some of the functional areas – for example, talent management for all employees versus the smart global talent management role; overall rewards versus local rewards versus global rewards impacting on the efficient people effectiveness expert role – which result in approaches that are potentially beyond the realm of true influence of the GM function and/or necessitate compromises (Reference Dowling, Festing and EngleDowling et al., 2013). Lastly, the interests of global workers, their line managers and the GM functions may also diverge. Where the line management has strong power it is likely that ‘negotiations’ with GM professionals result in some adjustment to the intended GM approaches. Thus, enacted practices may diverge from planned ones (Ferner et al., Reference Ferner, Almond, Clark, Colling, Edwards, Holden and Muller-Camen2004).

An idealised stance. This assumes that GM staff is seeking to pursue extended and more strategic roles as described in the SAFE model and has the required competencies to fulfil these roles. In reality, it has been found that when the HR function embarked on a similar journey following Ulrich’s ideas, the interpretation of what this would mean for organizations differed between organizations, the support from other departments and top management within their organizations was often lacking, and the needed competencies for HR practitioners to become more strategic and business focussed were often absent (Reference Sparrow, Hird, Hesketh and CooperSparrow et al., 2010). Given the often quite tactical and specialist roles in GM departments these practical barriers to moving towards a successful formulation and implementation of the SAFE GM approach may also apply. Lastly, it seems to be rare in GM departments to go beyond assessing the cost of global mobility in order to develop a broad value case for specific international assignments and global mobility overall (Reference McNulty, De Cieri and HutchingsMcNulty, De Cieri, & Hutchings, 2009; Reference McNultyMcNulty, 2014; Reference Nowak and LinderNowak & Linder, 2016). In the relative absence of well-founded, broad cases for different types of global mobility policies and practices – those that also incorporate benefit considerations and not just cost figures – it will be hard to develop all areas of the SAFE model. The risk is high that some GM departments continue to trouble shoot and to focus purely on operational, short-term issues (Reference Harris, Brewster and SparrowHarris et al., 2003; Reference Dowling, Festing and EngleDowling et al., 2013). Nevertheless, this chapter was written to develop a vision of the GM function’s diverse roles that would likely improve the strategic importance and quality of the GM work.

12.7 Conclusions and Learning Points

This chapter has concentrated on the dynamic pressures impacting on GM and is suggesting that agile mobility strategies, structures, and policies enable MNCs to shape the future successfully. For this, GM departments need to move out of their comfort zones and out of their silo mentality. They need to understand organizational and HR strategies and should engage intensively with the business. Based on these pressures, a new SAFE Global Mobility model was developed that depicts key roles and activities emphasizing the purpose and valuable experiences of GM. Notwithstanding the limitations outlined earlier, the chapter contains a range of ideas and recommendations that can improve the GM work of organizations.

The key learning points for GM professionals, formulated as a call to action and bearing in mind the points regarding simplicity, homogeneity, and idealism, include:

1. 1. GM professionals need to understand the massive and rapid changes that define the world of global mobility. Technological advances, automatization, artificial intelligence, new competitive pressures needing new capabilities, and dynamic operating models, create pressures for learning and paradigm shifts.

2. 2. Smart global talent management needs to create tangible results through the management of specific, measurable, achievable, results-focused, and time-bound GM objectives. The value of smart mobility approaches lies in the intersection of organizational and assignee interests. This encourages integration with intelligent career and succession planning.

3. 3. Agile global mobility configurations are constructed through strategic advice. These need to be based on the corporate vision, business, and other strategies and need to be scalable and flexible to react to dynamic competitive developments. In practice, GM professionals have to identify ways how mobility underpins organization-wide strategies.

4. 4. Flawless programme leadership needs to create high quality compliance and vendor relationship management. Flawless programme management mitigates the multiple risks associated with non-compliance. Successful tracking of assignees and sophisticated data analytics can enable GM departments to analyse their activities and improve them even further while increasing client satisfaction.

5. 5. Efficient global people effectiveness approaches need to understand, attract, motivate, and performance manage mobility candidates and assignees. This is enabled through the use of more developed global career branding, more sophisticated mobility selection approaches and instruments, as well as a conscious assignment objective setting and management process.

6. 6. GM professionals should seek to individualize the relationship to assignees through smart global talent management and efficient global people effectiveness approaches. Given the need for superior data for the management of assignees, it can also be used to individualize where expatriates are sent, what form of assignment they go onto, and how they are managed.

7. 7. GM departments need to understand and find shared territory in relation to the purpose of GM work. Beyond using the organizational interest, the purpose needs to incorporate the interests of assignees. This ‘mutual purpose’ is likely to motivate and energize global workers, resulting in better performance, retention, and commitment.

8. 8. Focus on assignee experience. Staffs increasingly seek meaning in work and life, and good assignee experiences should be valued by expatriates as they are likely to enrich their private and professional lives.

MNCs are embedded in massive change and undertake substantial internal transformations. GM departments and professionals need to understand and shape these changes in order to live their four key roles. Adapting to the new paradigm developed in Figure 12.3 and through the SAFE GM approach, focussing on the purpose and employee experience of working abroad needs sensitive, sophisticated, and agile GM approaches. The road to this is highly complex and will need strong internal support and highly developed strategic and operational capabilities within the GM function. The writer has outlined a strongly practice-focussed chapter and hopes to add to the insights of how to effectively tackle GM challenges in order to take advantage of the manifold opportunities of global work.