Appendix 1: List of Languages in the Typological Sample Used in Chapter 7
1. List of languages (families) that have pairs of causatives with an (in)directness distinction (in a broad sense), used for the case studies in Chapter 7. The genetic classification is provided according to the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS, Dryer and Haspelmath Reference Dryer and Haspelmath2013).
Africa (5):
Gumuz (isolate), Humburi Senni (Songhay), Khoekhoe/Nama (Khoe-Kwadi), Ma’di (Central Sudanic), Noon (Niger-Congo)
Australia (3):
Diyari (Pama-Nyungan), Garrwa (Garrwan), Kayardild (Tangkic)
Eurasia (13):
Ainu (isolate), Basque (isolate), Betta Kurumba (Dravidian), Finnish (Uralic), Great Andamanese (isolate), Hebrew (Afro-Asiatic), Hindi (Indo-European), Japanese (isolate), Korean (isolate), Kusunda (isolate), Lahu (Sino-Tibetan), Nivkh (isolate), Yukaghir Kolyma (Yukaghir)
North America (12):
Caddo (Caddoan), Cherokee (Iroquoian), Chimariko (Hokan), Creek (Muskogean), Filomeno (Totonacan), Lakhota (Siouan), Mutsun (Penutian), Northern Paiute (Uto-Aztecan), Slave (Na-Dene), Takelma (unclear), Teribe (Chibchan), Wappo (Wappo-Yukian)
Papua and Austronesia (4):
Indonesian (Austronesian), Motuna (South Bougainville), Skou (Skou), Yimas (Lower Sepik-Ramu)
South America (9):
Aguaruna (Jivaroan), Apinayé (Macro-Ge), Hup (Nadahup), Mocoví (Guaicuruan), Mosetén (Mosetenan), Trumai (isolate), Urarina (isolate), Waimiri-Atroarí (Cariban), Yagua (Peba-Yaguan)
2. Additional languages with other distinctions related to compactness
Africa (2):
Ik (Eastern Sudanic), Tubu/Dazaga (Saharan)
Papua and Austronesia (3):
Adang (Greater West Bomberai), Manambu (Sepik), Tidore (North Halmaheran)
South America (2):
Cavineña (Pano-Tacanan), Karó (Tupian)
3. Languages where no semantic distinctions between causative constructions have been found:
Africa (1):
Sandawe (isolate)
Eurasia (1):
Udihe (Altaic)
Papua and Austronesia (1):
Meninggo/Moskona (East Bird’s Head)
South America (3):
Mapuche (Araucanian), Paresi-Haliti (Arawakan), Yuracaré (isolate)
Appendix 2: Corpus Frequencies of Different A and P from Previous Studies Used in Chapter 8
| Corpus | Study | Role | Total | Lexical | Human | 1st & 2nd person | New | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sakapultek Pear Story | Du Bois Reference Du Bois1987 | A | 187 or 180 | 11/180 (6.1%) | 187/187 (100%) | NA | 6/187 (3.2%) | |
| P | 177 or 170 | 81/177 (45.8%) | 17/170 (10%) | NA | 42/170 (24.7%) | |||
| Chinese narratives (retelling the film Ghost) | Chui Reference Chui1992 | A | 407 | 155 (38.1%) | NA | NA | 12 (2.9%) | |
| P | 363 | 306 (84.3%) | NA | NA | 122 (33.6%) | |||
| French monologic speech | Ashby & Bentivoglio Reference Ashby and Bentivoglio1993 | A | 481 | 32 (6.7%) | NA | NA | 0 (0%) | |
| P | 481 | 324 (67.4%) | NA | NA | 143 (29.7%) | |||
| Spanish monologic speech | Ashby & Bentivoglio Reference Ashby and Bentivoglio1993 | A | 571 | 35 (6.1%) | NA | NA | 2 (0.4%) | |
| P | 571 | 341 (59.7%) | NA | NA | 142 (24.9%) | |||
| Written Swedish | Dahl & Fraurud Reference Dahl, Fraurud, Fretheim and Gundel1996 | A | 3127 | NA | 1766 (56.5%) | NA | NA | Only clauses with overt subject and object |
| P | 4476 | NA | 580 (13%) | NA | NA | |||
| Four oral narratives in Modern Hebrew | Sutherland-Smith Reference Sutherland-Smith1996 | A | 270 | 18 (6.7%) | NA | NA | 6 (2.2%) | Syntactic transitives + semantic transitives |
| P | 197 | 111 (56.3%) | NA | NA | 47 (23.9%) | |||
| Spoken Swedish | Dahl Reference Dahl2000 | A | 2991 | NA | Animate 2789 (93.2%) | Egophoric 1815 (60.7%) | NA | |
| P | 3244 | NA | Animate 531 (16.4%) | Egophoric 139 (4.3%) | NA | |||
| Inuktitut child language | Allen & Schröder Reference Allen, Schröder, Du Bois, Kumpf and Ashby2003 | A | 617, 613 or 616 | 7/617 (1.1%) | Animate 610/616 (99%) | 601/617 (97.4%) | 4/613 (0.7%) | Mostly affixal referring expressions |
| P | 617 or 603 | 37/617 (6%) | Animate 128/606 (21.1%) | 88/617 (14.3%) | 163/603 (27%) | |||
| Mapudungun narrative texts | Arnold Reference Arnold, Du Bois, Kumpf and Ashby2003 | A | 161 | 24 (14.9%) | NA | NA | 2 (1.2%) | Only main clauses |
| P | 161 | 137 (85.1%) | NA | NA | 77 (47.8%) | |||
| English talk shows | Everett Reference Everett2009 | A | 392 | 38 (9.7%) | 360 (91.8%) | NA | NA | |
| P | 397 | 237 (59.7%) | 50 (12.6%) | NA | NA | |||
| Portuguese talk shows | Everett Reference Everett2009 | A | 155 | 27 (17.4%) | 135 (87.1%) | NA | NA | |
| P | 163 | 138 (84.7%) | 10 (6.1%) | NA | NA | |||
| Chinese conversations | Lin Reference Lin and Xiao2009 | A | 100 | 20 (20%) | NA | NA | 15 (15%) | |
| P | 100 or 97 | 80/100 (80%) | NA | NA | 54/97 (55.6%) | |||
| Chinese spoken narratives | Lin Reference Lin and Xiao2009 | A | 80 | 15 (18.8%) | NA | NA | 10 (12.5%) | |
| P | 83 or 80 | 78/83 (94%) | NA | NA | 58/80 (72.5%) | |||
| Chinese written texts | Lin Reference Lin and Xiao2009 | A | 88 | 14 (15.9%) | NA | NA | 18 (20.5%) | |
| P | 88 or 87 | 72/88 (81.8%) | NA | NA | 61/87 (70.1%) | |||
| English autobiographical narratives | Schiborr Reference Schiborr, Haig and Schnell2016 | A | 1046 | 86 (8.2%) | 971 (92.8%) | 617 (59%) | NA | |
| P | 1114 | 532 (47.8%) | 138 (12.4%) | 54 (4.8%) | NA | |||
| Northern Kurdish traditional narratives | Haig & Thiele Reference Haig, Thiele, Haig and Schnell2016 | A | 422 | 55 (13%) | 408 (96.7%) | 137 (32.5%) | NA | |
| P | 428 | 234 (54.7%) | 111 (25.9%) | 29 (6.8%) | NA | |||
| Persian stimulus-based narratives | Abidifar Reference Adibifar, Haig and Schnell2016 | A | 603 | 82 (13.6%) | 580 (96.2%) | 22 (3.6%) | NA | |
| P | 628 | 331 (52.7%) | 113 (18%) | 0 (0%) | NA | |||
| Teop traditional narratives | Mosel & Schnell Reference Mosel and Schnell2016 | A | 797 | 77 (9.7%) | 760 (95.4%) | 204 (25.6%) | NA | |
| P | 616 | 265 (43%) | 267 (43.3%) | 29 (4.7%) | NA | |||
| Vera’a traditional narratives | Schnell Reference Schnell, Haig and Schnell2016 | A | 1360 | 101 (7.4%) | 1288 (94.7%) | 210 (15.4%) | NA | |
| P | 917 | 514 (56.1%) | 324 (35.3%) | 79 (8.6%) | NA |
