The shoot system

John E. Jackson

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511542657.008

6 - The shoot system

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 August 2009

John E. Jackson

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Introduction

The configuration and productivity of the individual apple or pear tree is determined by its height, the number and length of its branches and the angle of these to the vertical.

The size, density and arrangement of the branch and shoot framework determine the leaf area and light capture, and hence potential photosynthesis. They also determine the number of fruit buds and fruits.

Manipulation of shoot growth begins in the nursery, with the objective of producing trees with numerous lateral branches capable of bearing fruits in their early years in the orchard. It continues throughout the life of the tree with emphasis in the early years on branch initiation, development and training, followed by emphasis on the renewal of fruiting wood and ensuring adequate penetration of light into the canopy.

The stages in the development of an apple tree and the key elements of its above-ground structure are shown in Figure 6.1. Other tree forms may be used but the essentials are the same for both apples and pears.

Buds

All shoots of apple and pear scions arise from buds. The first in the life of the tree is the bud which is inserted into the rootstock stem by budding or is present on scionwood grafted on the rootstock. The buds on the orchard tree can be on the long (extension) shoots or the short (spur) shoots and may be terminal, i.e. at the end of the shoot, or lateral, i.e. in the axil of a leaf.

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: The Biology of Apples and Pears , pp. 157 - 209

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511542657.008 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abbas, M. F. (1978). Association between branching in maiden apple trees and levels of endogenous auxins. Acta Horticulturae 80, 59–62CrossRef Google Scholar

Abbott, D. L. (1970). The role of budscales in the morphogenesis and dormancy of the apple fruit bud. In Physiology of Tree Crops, ed. L. C. Luckwill and C. V. Cutting, pp. 65–82. London: Academic Press

Abbott, D. L. (1984). The Apple Tree: Physiology and Management. London: Grower Books

Arasu, N. T. (1968). Spur-type sports in apple. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1967, 113–19

Avery, D. J. (1969). Comparison of fruiting and deblossomed maiden apple trees, and of non-fruiting trees on a dwarfing and an invigorating rootstock. New Phytologist 68, 323–336CrossRef Google Scholar

Barlow, H. W. B. (1964). An interim report on a long-term experiment to assess the effect of cropping on apple tree growth. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1963, 84–93

Barlow, H. W. B. (1966). The effect of cropping on the number and kind of shoots on four apple varieties. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1965, 120–4

Barlow, H. W. B. (1975a). Effects of temperature on apple shoot growth. In Climate and the Orchard, ed. H. C. Pereira, pp. 41–3. Farnham Royal, UK: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux

Barlow, H. W. B. (1975b). Effects of cropping on the growth of orchard trees. In Climate and the Orchard, ed. H. C. Pereira, pp. 98–102. Farnham Royal, UK: C.A.B.

Barlow, H. W. B. and Hancock, C. R. (1956). Internode growth in stoolbed shoots of the apple rootstock Crab C. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1955, 89–100

Barlow, H. W. B. and Hancock, C. R. (1960). The experimental modification of branch form in an apple rootstock. Botanical Gazette 121, 208–15CrossRef Google Scholar

Barlow, H. W. B. and Hancock, C. R. (1962). The influence of the leaf on the development of its axillary meristem. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1961, 71–6

Bell, R. L., Scorza, R., Srinivasan, C. and Webb, K. (1999). Transformation of ‘Beurré Bosc’ pear with the rol C gene. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 124, 570–4Google Scholar

Bepete, M. and Jackson, J. E. (1995). Apple cultivar performance and response to a chemical dormancy breaking spray under ‘marginal’ winter-chilling conditions in Zimbabwe. Acta Horticulturae 409, 121–4CrossRef Google Scholar

Bernardi, J. (1988). Behaviour of some apple cultivars in the subtropical region of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Acta Horticulturae 232, 46–50CrossRef Google Scholar

Blanco-Braña, A. (1976). Effects of growth regulating hormones on the emergence of shoots following pruning of fruit trees. PhD thesis, London University (East Malling)

Blanco-Braña, A. and Jackson, J. E. (1982a). Effects of applying growth regulating hormones following fruit tree pruning. I. Effects of different types and concentrations of auxin and of GA4+7 and 6-benzylaminopurine on shoot emergence and wound healing in apple trees. Journal of Horticultural Science 57, 17–30CrossRef Google Scholar

Blanco-Braña, A. and Jackson, J. E. (1982b). Transport of NAA applied to the cut surfaces of pruned apple branches. Journal of Horticultural Science 57, 31–44CrossRef Google Scholar

Blasco, A. B. (1976). Rootstock effects on growth and cropping of apples with special reference to fruit quality. PhD thesis, London University (East Malling)

Borkowska, B. (1981). Dormancy and development of apple axillary buds investigated in vitro. Acta Horticulturae 120, 161–4CrossRef Google Scholar

Borkowska, B. and Powell, L. E. (1982/83). Abscisic acid relationships in dormancy of apple buds. Scientia Horticulturae 18, 111–17CrossRef Google Scholar

Broome, O. C. and Zimmerman, R. H. (1976). Breaking bud dormancy in tea crabapple (Malus hupehensis (Pamp) Rehd) with cytokinins. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 101, 28–30Google Scholar

Campbell, A. I. and Lacey, C. N. D. (1973). Compact mutants of Bramley's Seedling apple induced by gamma radiation. Journal of Horticultural Science 48, 397–402CrossRef Google Scholar

Campbell, R. K. (1978). Regulation of bud burst timing by temperature and photoperiod during dormancy. In Proceedings of the Fifth North American Forest Biology Workshop, ed. C. A. Hollis and A. E. Squillace, pp. 19–33. Forestry Department, University of Florida, Gainesville

Cannell, M. G. R. (1989). Chilling, thermal time and the date of flowering of trees. In Manipulation of Fruiting, ed. C. J. Wright, pp. 99–113. London: ButterworthsCrossRef

Champagnat, P. and Côme, D. (1986). Some thoughts on hormonal regulation of bud and seed dormancies. Acta Horticulturae 179, 117–27CrossRef Google Scholar

Cline, M. G. (1991). Apical dominance. The Botanical Review 57, 318–58CrossRef Google Scholar

Cody, C., Larson, F. E. and Fritts, R. (1985). Induction of lateral branches in tree fruit nursery stock with propyl 3-t-butylphenoxy acetate (MB25, 105) and promalin (GA4+7 + 6-benzyladenine). Scientia Horticulturae 26, 111–18CrossRef Google Scholar

Couvillon, G. A., Finardi, N., Magnani, M. and Freire, C. (1984). Rootstock influences the chilling requirement of ‘Rome Beauty’ apple in Brazil. HortScience 19, 255–6Google Scholar

Crabbé, J. J. (1984a). Morphogenetical ways towards vigour restriction in spontaneous and man-made dwarf trees. Acta Horticulturae 146, 113–20CrossRef Google Scholar

Crabbé, J. J. (1984b). Correlative effects modifying the course of bud dormancy in woody plants. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenphysiologie 113 S, 465–9CrossRef Google Scholar

Curry, E. A. and Looney, N. E. (1986). Effect of cropping on shoot growth of spur-type ‘Golden Delicious’ trees. HortScience 21, 1015–17Google Scholar

Cutting, J. G. M., Strydom, D. K., Jacobs, G., Bellstedt, D. U., Merwe, K. J. and Weiler, E. W. (1991). Changes in xylem constituents in response to rest-breaking agents applied to apple before budbreak. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 116, 680–3Google Scholar

Davies, P. J. (1987). The plant hormones: their nature, occurrence and function. In Plant Hormones and their Role in Plant Growth and Development, ed. P. J. Davies, pp. 1–11. Dordrecht: Martinus NijhoffCrossRef

Denardi, F., Hough, L. F. and Bonetti, J. I. (1988). Low chilling and disease resistance as main objectives of apple breeding in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Acta Horticulturae 232, 15–25CrossRef Google Scholar

Diaz, D. H., Alvarez, A. and Sandoval, J. (1987). Cultural and chemical practices to induce uniform bud break of peach and apple under warm climates in Mexico. Acta Horticulturae 199, 129–36CrossRef Google Scholar

Duckworth, S. J., Abbas, M. F. and Quinlan, J. D. (1979). Influence of endogenous growth regulators on branching. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1978, 39

Dutcher, R. D. and Powell, L. E. (1972). Culture of apple shoots from buds in vitro. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 97, 511–14Google Scholar

Eames, A. J. and MacDaniels, L. H. (1947). An Introduction to Plant Anatomy, 2nd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill

Edwards, G. R. (1985). Changes in endogenous hormones in apple during bud burst induced by defoliation. Acta Horticulturae 158, 203–10CrossRef Google Scholar

Edwards, G. R. and Notodimedjo, S. (1987). Defoliation, bending and tip pruning of apple under tropical conditions. Acta Horticulturae 199, 125–8CrossRef Google Scholar

El-Banna, S., El-Shall, S. and Shahin, B. (1995). Effect of dormant season spray applications on growth and fruiting of Le-Conte pear trees. Acta Horticulturae 409, 207–13CrossRef Google Scholar

Elfving, D. C. and Proctor, J. T. A. (1986). Long term effects of paclobutrazol (Cultar) on apple shoot growth, cropping and fruit–leaf relations. Acta Horticulturae 179, 473–80CrossRef Google Scholar

Erez, A. (1995). Means to compensate for insufficient chilling to improve bloom and leafing. Acta Horticulturae 395, 81–95CrossRef Google Scholar

Erez, A. (2000). Bud dormancy: phenomenon, problems and solutions in the tropics and subtropics. In Temperate Fruit Crops in Warm Climates, ed. A. Erez, pp. 17–48. Dordrecht: KluwerCrossRef

Erez, A. and Lavi, B. (1985). Breaking bud rest of several deciduous fruit tree species in the Kenyan highlands. Acta Horticulturae 158, 239–48CrossRef Google Scholar

Esau, K. (1965). Plant Anatomy, 2nd edn. New York: John Wiley

Evert, R. F. (1960). Phloem structure in Pyrus communis, L. and its seasonal changes. University of California Berkeley Publications Bot. 32, 127–94Google Scholar

Evert, R. F. (1963). The cambium and seasonal development of the phloem in Pyrus malus. American Journal of Botany 50, 149–59CrossRef Google Scholar

Faust, M. (1989). Physiology of Temperate Zone Fruit Trees. New York: Wiley

Faust, M. and Zagaja, S. W. (1984). Prospects for developing low vigour fruit tree cultivars. Acta Horticulturae 146, 21–7CrossRef Google Scholar

Faust, M., Erez, A., Rowland, L. J., Wang, S. Y. and Norman, H. A. (1997). Bud dormancy in perennial fruit trees: physiological basis for dormancy induction, maintenance and release. HortScience 32, 623–9Google Scholar

Faust, M., Liu, D., Wang, S. Y. and Stutte, G. W. (1995). Involvement of apical dominance in winter dormancy of apple buds. Acta Horticulturae 395, 47–56CrossRef Google Scholar

Ferree, D. C., Myers, S. C., Rom, C. R. and Taylor, B. H. (1984). Physiological aspects of summer pruning. Acta Horticulturae 146, 243–52CrossRef Google Scholar

Gianfagna, T. J. and Mehlenbacher, S. A. (1985). Importance of heat requirement for bud break and time of flowering in apple. HortScience 20, 909–11Google Scholar

Goode, J. E. and Ingram, J. (1971). The effect of irrigation on the growth, cropping and nutrition of Cox's Orange Pippin apple trees. Journal of Horticultural Science 46, 195–208CrossRef Google Scholar

Graebe, J. E. and Ropers, H. J. (1978). In Phytohormones and Related Compounds – a Comprehensive Treatise, Vol. I, ed. D. S. Letham, P. B. Goodwin and T. J. V. Higgins, pp. 107–204. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland

Greene, D. W. and Autio, W. R. (1994). Notching techniques increase branching of young apple trees. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 119, 678–82Google Scholar

Grochowska, M. J., Buta, G. J., Steffens, G. L. and Faust, M. (1984). Endogenous auxin and gibberellin levels in low and high vigour apple seedlings. Acta Horticulturae 146, 125–34CrossRef Google Scholar

Hamer, P. J. C. (1981). The effects of evaporative cooling on apple bud development and frost resistance. Journal of Horticultural Science 56, 107–12CrossRef Google Scholar

Hancock, C. R. and Barlow, H. W. B. (1958). Seasonal fluctuations in stem growth in the apple rootstock Crab C. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1957, 91–5

Hansen, P. (1967). 14C-Studies on apple trees. II. Distribution of photosynthates from top and base leaves from extension shoots. Physiologia Plantarum 20, 720–5CrossRef Google Scholar

Hansen, P. (1969). 14C-Studies on apple trees. IV. Photosynthate consumption in fruits in relation to leaf–fruit ratio and to the leaf–fruit position. Physiologia Plantarum 22, 186–98CrossRef Google Scholar

Hansen, P. (1971). 14C-Studies in apple trees. VII. The early seasonal growth in leaves, flowers and shoots as dependent upon current photosynthates and existing reserves. Physiologia Plantarum 25, 469–73CrossRef Google Scholar

Hansen, P. and Grauslund, J. (1973). 14C-Studies on apple trees. VIII. The seasonal variation and nature of reserves. Physiologia Plantarum 28, 24–32CrossRef Google Scholar

Hauagge, R. and Cummins, J. N. (1991a). Phenotypic variation in length of bud dormancy in apple cultivars and related Malus species. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 116, 100–6Google Scholar

Hauagge, R. and Cummins, J. N. (1991b). Seasonal variation in intensity of bud dormancy in apple cultivars and related Malus species. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 116, 107–15Google Scholar

Hauagge, R. and Cummins, J. N. (1991c). Genetics of length of dormancy period in Malus vegetative buds. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 116, 121–6Google Scholar

Hauagge, R. and Cummins, J. N. (2000). Pome fruit genetic pool for production in warm climates. In Temperate Fruit Crops in Warm Climates, ed. A. Erez, pp. 267–303. Dordrecht: KluwerCrossRef

Hedden, P. and Graebe, J. E. (1985). Inhibition of gibberellin biosynthesis by paclobutrazol in cell-free homogenates of Cucurbita maxima endosperm and Malus pumila embryos. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 4, 111–22CrossRef Google Scholar

Herter, F. G., Finardi, N. L. and Mauget, J. C. (1988). Dormancy development in apple trees cvs Gala, Golden and Fuji in Pelotas RS. Acta Horticulturae 232, 109–15CrossRef Google Scholar

Hill-Cottingham, D. G. (1963). Effect of the time of application of fertilizer nitrogen on the growth, flowering and fruiting of maiden apple trees grown in sand culture. Journal of Horticultural Science 38, 242–51CrossRef Google Scholar

Hillman, J. R. (1984). Apical dominance. In Advanced Plant Physiology, ed. M. B. Wilkins, pp. 127–48. London: Pitman

Holefors, A., Xue, Z-T., and Welander, M. (1998). Transformation of the apple rootstock M26 with the rol A gene and its influence on growth. Plant Science 136, 69–78CrossRef Google Scholar

Howard, B. H., Preston, A. P. and Quinlan, J. D. (1975). Large, uniform and well-feathered fruit trees should be aimed for. The Grower, July 19, 118–20

Hrotkó, K., Magyar, L., Yao, C. and Rónay, Z. (1997). Effect of repeated B. A. (benzyladenine) application on feathering of ‘Idared’ apple nursery trees. Horticultural Science – Kertészeti Tudomány 29, 46–51Google Scholar

Iancu, M. (1985). Growth rate of apple trunk and fruit – additional indicators for water needs of fruit trees. Acta Horticulturae 171, 417–25CrossRef Google Scholar

Jackson, J. E. (1990). Cropping and multiple cropping of apples in medium altitude tropical Zimbabwe. In Abstracts of the 23rd International Horticultural Congress, International Society for Horticultural Science, Florence, 1990, Abst. #4325

Jackson, J. E. and Bepete, M. (1995). The effect of hydrogen cyanamide (Dormex) on flowering and cropping of different apple cultivars under tropical conditions of sub-optimal winter chilling. Scientia Horticulturae 60, 293–304CrossRef Google Scholar

Jackson, J. E. and Palmer, J. W. (1977a). Effects of shade on the growth and cropping of apple trees. I. Experimental details and effects on vegetative growth. Journal of Horticultural Science 52, 245–52CrossRef Google Scholar

Jackson, J. E., Parry, M. S. and Stephens, C. P. (1981). Intensification of tree fruit production: current constraints, relevant research and an alternative system strategy for the 1980s. Acta Horticulturae 114, 399–406CrossRef Google Scholar

Janick, J. (1974). The apple in Java. HortScience 9, 13–15Google Scholar

Jaumien, F., Czarnecki, B., Poniedzialek, W. and Mitrut, T. (1993). Very similar effects of a mixture of GA3 and BA (6-benzylaminopurine) and of GA4+7 and BA on branching of some apple cultivars in nursery. Acta Horticulturae 329, 35–42CrossRef Google Scholar

Johnson, R. S. and Lakso, A. N. (1985). Relationships between stem length, leaf area, stem weight and accumulated growing degree-days in apple shoots. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 110, 586–90Google Scholar

Jones, O. P. (1967). Effect of benzyladenine on isolated apple shoots. Nature 215, 1514–15CrossRef Google Scholar

Jones, R. L. (1973). Gibberellins: their physiological role. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 24, 571–98CrossRef Google Scholar

Kandiah, S. (1979). Turnover of carbohydrates in relation to growth in apple trees. II. Distribution of 14C assimilates labelled in autumn, spring and summer. Annals of Botany 44, 185–95CrossRef Google Scholar

Kato, T. and Ito, H. (1962). Physiological factors associated with the shoot growth of apple trees. Tohuku Journal of Agricultural Research 13, 1–21Google Scholar

Knight, R. C. (1961). Taper and secondary thickening in stems and roots of apple. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1960, 65–71

Krisanapook, K. and Subhadrabandhu, S. (1995). Effect of some practices and hydrogen cyanamide on budbreak of ‘Shinseiki’ pear. Acta Horticulturae 395, 149–51CrossRef Google Scholar

Lang, G. A. (1987). Dormancy, a new universal terminology. HortScience 22, 817–20Google Scholar

Lapins, K. O. (1969). Segregation of compact growth types in certain apple seedling progenies. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 49, 765–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Lapins, K. O. and Watkins, R. (1973). Genetics of compact growth habit. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1972, 136

Latimer, J. G. and Robitaille, H. A. (1981). Sources of variability in apple shoot selection and handling for bud rest determinations. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 106, 794–8Google Scholar

Lawes, G. S., Spence, C. B., Tustin, D. S. and Max, S. M. (1997). Tree quality and canopy management effects on the growth and floral precocity of young ‘Doyenne du Comice’ pear trees. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 25, 177–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Lespinasse, J. M. and Delort, J. F. (1986). Apple tree management in vertical axis: appraisal after ten years of experiments. Acta Horticulturae 160, 139–55CrossRef Google Scholar

Looney, N. E. and Lane, W. D. (1984). Spur-type growth mutants of ‘McIntosh’ apple: a review of their genetics, physiology and field performance. Acta Horticulturae 146, 31–46CrossRef Google Scholar

Luckwill, L. C. (1974). A new look at the process of fruit bud formation in apple. Proceedings of 19th International Horticultural Congress, Warsaw, 3, 237–45Google Scholar

Maggs, D. H. (1961). Changes in the amount and distribution of increment induced by contrasting watering, nitrogen and environmental regimes. Annals of Botany, N.S. 25, 353–61CrossRef Google Scholar

Maggs, D. H. (1963). The reduction in growth of apple trees brought about by fruiting. Journal of Horticultural Science 38, 119–28CrossRef Google Scholar

Maggs, D. H. (1965). Dormant and summer pruning compared by pruning young apple trees once on a succession of dates. Journal of Horticultural Science 40, 249–65CrossRef Google Scholar

Marini, R. P. and Barden, J. A. (1987). Summer pruning of apple and peach trees. Horticultural Reviews 9, 351–75Google Scholar

Mason, A. C. and Whitfield, A. B. (1960). Seasonal changes in the uptake and distribution of mineral elements in apple trees. Journal of Horticultural Science 35, 34–55CrossRef Google Scholar

Mauget, J. C. and Rageau, R. (1988). Bud dormancy and adaptation of apple tree to mild winter climates. Acta Horticulturae 232, 101–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Métraux, J.-P. (1987). Gibberellins and plant cell elongation. In Plant Hormones and their Role in Plant Growth and Development, ed. P. J. Davies, pp. 296–317. Dordrecht: Martinus NijhoffCrossRef

Mika, A. (1986). Physiological response of fruit trees to pruning. Horticultural Reviews 8, 339–78Google Scholar

Mika, A., Grochowska, M. J., Karaszewska, A. and Williams, M. W. (1983). Effects of dormant and summer pruning, disbudding and growth retardants on growth, flower bud formation and fruiting of young apple trees. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 108, 655–60Google Scholar

Miller, E. P. and Baker, L. H. (1982). An evaluation of apple cultivars for central and north Florida. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 95, 88–90Google Scholar

Morgan, J. and Richards, A. (1993). The Book of Apples. London: Ebury Press

North, M. S. (1995). New rest-breaking agents for the control of delayed foliation of apples. Acta Horticulturae 409, 151–4CrossRef Google Scholar

Notodimedjo, S., Danoesastro, H., Sastrosumarto, S. and Edwards, G. R. (1981). Shoot growth, flower initiation and dormancy of apple in the tropics. Acta Horticulturae 120, 179–86CrossRef Google Scholar

Oliveira, C. M. and Priestley, C. A. (1988). Carbohydrate reserves in deciduous fruit trees. Horticultural Reviews 10, 403–30Google Scholar

Ouellette, D. R., Unrath, C. R. and Young, E. (1996). Manual and chemical branch inducement in fall- and spring-planted ‘Empire’ apple on two rootstocks. HortScience 31, 82–8Google Scholar

Paiva, E. and Robitaille, H. A. (1978). Breaking bud rest on detached apple shoots: effects of wounding and ethylene. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 103, 101–4Google Scholar

Parker, M. L. and Young, E. (1995). Leader management and soil fumigation affect branching and precocity of young apple trees. HortScience 30, 1193–5Google Scholar

Petri, J. L. and Stuker, H. (1988). Effects of temperature and length of cold storage of nursery plants on the subsequent development of young apple trees. Acta Horticulturae 232, 117–26Google Scholar

Petropoulou, S. P. (1985). Temperature related factors as selection criteria in apple breeding. PhD thesis, University of London

Phillips, I. D. J. (1975). Apical dominance. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 26, 341–67CrossRef Google Scholar

Powell, L. E. (1987). The hormonal control of bud and seed dormancy in woody plants. In Plant Hormones and Their Role in Plant Growth and Development, ed. P. J. Davies, pp. 539–52. Dordrecht: Martinus NijhoffCrossRef

Pratt, C. (1990). Apple trees: morphology and anatomy. HorticulturalReviews 12, 265–305Google Scholar

Priestley, C. A. (1969). Some aspects of the physiology of apple rootstock varieties under reduced illumination. Annals of Botany 33, 967–80CrossRef Google Scholar

Quinlan, J. D. (1965). The pattern of distribution of 14Carbon in a potted apple rootstock following assimilation of 14Carbon dioxide by a single leaf. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1964, 117–18

Quinlan, J. D. (1966). The effects of partial defoliation on the pattern of assimilate movement in an apple rootstock. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1965, 128–9

Quinlan, J. D. (1969). Mobilisation of 14C in the spring following autumn assimilation of 14CO2 by an apple rootstock. Journal of Horticultural Science 44, 107–10CrossRef Google Scholar

Quinlan, J. D. (1981). Recent developments in the chemical control of tree growth. Acta Horticulturae 114, 144–51CrossRef Google Scholar

Reinhold, L. (1978). Phytohormones and orientation of growth. In Phytohormones and Related Compounds – a Comprehensive Treatise, Vol. 2, ed. D. S. Letham, P. B. Goodwin, and T. J. V. Higgins, pp. 251–89. Amsterdam: Elsevier

Richardson, P. J. and Quinlan, J. D. (1986). Uptake and translocation of paclobutrazol by shoots of M26 apple rootstock. Plant Growth Regulation 4, 347–56Google Scholar

Robitaille, H. A., and Carlson, R. F. (1971). Response of dwarfed apple trees to stem injections of gibberellic and abscisic acids. HortScience 6, 539–40Google Scholar

Rogers, W. S. and Booth, G. A. (1964). Relationship of crop and shoot growth in apple. Journal of Horticultural Science 39, 61–5CrossRef Google Scholar

Rubery, P. R. (1987). Auxin transport. In Plant Hormones and their Role in Plant Growth and Development, ed. P. J. Davies, pp. 341–62. Dordrecht: Martinus NijhoffCrossRef

Sachs, T. (1993). The role of auxin in plant organization. Acta Horticulturae 329, 162–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Sachs, T. and Thimann, K. V. (1967). The role of auxins and cytokinins in the release of buds from dominance. American Journal of Botany 54, 136–44CrossRef Google Scholar

Samish, R. M. (1954). Dormancy in woody plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 5, 183–203CrossRef Google Scholar

Saure, M. C. (1985). Dormancy release in deciduous fruit trees. Horticultural Reviews 7, 239–300Google Scholar

Seeley, S. D. and Powell, L. E. (1981). Seasonal changes of free and hydrolyzable abscisic acid in vegetative apple buds. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 106, 405–9Google Scholar

Shaltout, A. D. and Unrath, C. R. (1983). Rest completion prediction model for ‘Starkrimson Delicious’ apples. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 108, 957–61Google Scholar

Sherman, W. B. and Crocker, T. E. (1982). Low chilling pears. In The Pear, ed. T. van der Zwet and N. F. Childers. Gainesville, FL: Horticultural Publications

Skene, D. S. (1980). Estimating potential blossom on ‘Cox's Orange Pippin’ apple shoots by forcing isolated buds. Journal of Horticultural Science 55, 145–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Soumelidou, K., Morris, D. A., Battey, N. H., Barnett, J. R. and John, P. (1994). Auxin transport capacity in relation to the dwarfing effects of apple rootstocks. Journal of Horticultural Science 69, 719–25CrossRef Google Scholar

Spiegel-Roy, P. and Alston, F. H. (1979). Chilling and post-dormant heat requirement as selection criteria for late-flowering pears. Journal of Horticultural Science 54, 115–20CrossRef Google Scholar

Sponsel, V. M. (1987). Gibberellin biosynthesis and metabolism. In Plant Hormones and their Role in Plant Growth and Development, ed. P. J. Davies, pp. 43–71. Dordrecht: Martinus NijhoffCrossRef

Steffens, G. L. and Stutte, G. W. (1989). Thidiazuron substitution for chilling requirement in three apple cultivars. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 8, 301–7CrossRef Google Scholar

Steffens, G. L., Byun, J. K. and Wang, S. Y. (1985). Controlling plant growth via the gibberellin biosynthesis system – I. Growth parameter alterations in apple seedlings. Physiologia Plantarum 63, 163–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Subhadrabandhu, S. (1995). Induction of budbreak in apple trees that received insufficient chilling by hydrogen cyanamide. Acta Horticulturae 409, 171–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Swartz, H. J., Geyer, A. S., Powell, L. E. and Lin, H. C. (1984). The role of bud scales in the dormancy of apples. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 109, 745–9Google Scholar

Tamas, I. A. (1995). Hormonal regulation of apical dominance. In Plant Hormones and their Role in Plant Growth and Development, 2nd edn, ed. P. J. Davies, pp. 572–97. Dordrecht: KluwerCrossRef

Taylor, J. S., Pharis, R. P., Loveys, B., Notodimedjo, S. and Edwards, G. R. (1984). Changes in endogenous hormones in apple during bud burst induced by defoliation. Plant Growth Regulation 2, 117–34CrossRef Google Scholar

Thimann, K. V. and Skoog, F. (1933). Studies on the growth hormone of plants. III. The inhibiting action of the growth substance on bud development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA) 19, 714–16CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Thimann, K. V. and Skoog, F. (1934). On the inhibition of bud development and other functions of growth substance in Vicia faba. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 114, 317–39CrossRef Google Scholar

Thompson, W. K., Jones, D. L. and Nichols, D. G. (1975). Effects of dormancy factors on the growth of vegetative buds in young apple trees. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 26, 989–96CrossRef Google Scholar

Titus, J. S. and Kang, S. M. (1982). Nitrogen metabolism, translocation and recycling in apple trees. Horticultural Reviews 4, 204–46Google Scholar

Tromp, J. (1992a). Lateral shoot formation in apple in the first year after budding as affected by air humidity and soil temperature. Acta Horticulturae 322, 141–51CrossRef Google Scholar

Tromp, J. (1992b). The effect of soil temperature on lateral shoot formation and flower bud formation in apple in the first year after budding. Journal of Horticultural Science 67, 787–93CrossRef Google Scholar

Tromp, J. and Ovaa, J. C. (1971). Spring mobilization of storage nitrogen in isolated shoot sections of apple. Physiologia Plantarum 25, 16–22CrossRef Google Scholar

Tromp, J. and Ovaa, J. C. (1990). Seasonal changes in the cytokinin composition of xylem sap of apple. Journal of Plant Physiology 136, 606–10CrossRef Google Scholar

Tukey, L. D. (1986). Cropping characteristics of bearing apple trees annually sprayed with paclobutrazol (PP 333). Acta Horticulturae 179, 481–8CrossRef Google Scholar

Oosten, H. J. (1978). Effect of initial tree quality on yield. Acta Horticulturae 65, 123–7CrossRef Google Scholar

Vegis, A. (1963). Climatic control of germination, budbreak, and dormancy. In Environmental Control of Plant Growth, ed. L. T. Evans, p. 273. London: Academic PressCrossRef

Vegis, A. (1964). Dormancy in higher plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 15, 185–224CrossRef Google Scholar

Vegis, A. (1973). Dependence of the growth processes on temperature. In Temperature and Life, ed. H. Precht, C. Christophersen, H. Hensel and W. Larcher, pp. 145–70. Berlin: Springer-Verlag

Volz, R. K., Gibbs, H. M. and Popenoe, J. (1994). Branch induction on apple nursery trees: effects of growth regulators and defoliation. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 22, 277–83CrossRef Google Scholar

Walsh, C. S. and Miller, A. N. (1984). Observations on the growth and vigour of spur and non-spur-type apple trees. Acta Horticulturae 146, 211–14CrossRef Google Scholar

Wang, S. Y. and Faust, M. (1990). Changes in membrane lipids in apple buds during dormancy and budbreak. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 115, 803–8Google Scholar

Wang, S. Y., Faust, M. and Line, M. J. (1994). Apical dominance in apple (Malus domestica Borkh): the possible role of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 119, 1215–21Google Scholar

Wang, S. Y., Steffens, G. L. and Faust, M. (1986). Breaking bud dormancy in apple with a plant bioregulator, Thidiazuron. Phytochemistry 25, 311–17CrossRef Google Scholar

Webster, A. D. (1995). Rootstock and interstock effects on deciduous fruit tree vigour, precocity, and yield productivity. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 23, 373–82CrossRef Google Scholar

Wertheim, S. J. (1978). Manual and chemical induction of side-shoot formation in apple trees in the nursery. Scientia Horticulturae 9, 337–45CrossRef Google Scholar

Westwood, M. N. (1970). Rootstock–scion relationships in hardiness of deciduous fruit trees. HortScience 5, 418–21Google Scholar

Westwood, M. N. (1993). Temperate Zone Pomology, Physiology and Culture. Portland, OR: Timber Press

Westwood, M. N. and Bjornstad, H. O. (1968). Chilling requirement of dormant seeds of 14 pear species as related to their climatic adaptation. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 92, 141–9Google Scholar

Westwood, M. N. and Chestnut, N. E. (1964). Rest period chilling requirement of ‘Bartlett’ pear as related to Pyrus calleryana and P. communis rootstocks. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 84, 82–7Google Scholar

Williams, M. W. and Billingsley, H. D. (1970). Increasing the number and crotch angles of primary branches of apple trees with cytokinins and gibberellic acid. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 95, 649–51Google Scholar

Williams, M. W. and Stahly, E. A. (1968). Effect of cytokinins on apple shoot development from axillary buds. HortScience 3, 68–9Google Scholar

Williams, R. R., Edwards, G. R. and Coombe, B. G. (1979). Determination of the pattern of winter dormancy in lateral buds of apples. Annals of Botany 44, 575–81CrossRef Google Scholar

Wilson, S. J. and Jarassamrit, N. (1994). Nursery factors influencing lateral shoot development in a spur type apple cultivar. Scientia Horticulturae 56, 207–15CrossRef Google Scholar

Young, E. (1987). Effects of 6-BA, GA4+7 and IBA on growth resumption of chilled apple roots and shoots. HortScience 22, 212–13Google Scholar

Young, E. (1989). Cytokinins and soluble carbohydrate concentrations in xylem sap of apple during dormancy and budbreak. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 114, 297–300Google Scholar

Young, E. (1990). Changes in respiration rate and energy of activation after chilling and forcing dormant apple trees. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 115, 809–14Google Scholar

Young, E. and Werner, D. J. (1984). Effects of rootstock and scion chilling during rest on resumption of growth in apple and peach. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 109, 548–51Google Scholar

Young, E. and Werner, D. J. (1985a). Chill unit and growing degree hour requirements for vegetative bud break in six apple rootstocks. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 110, 411–13Google Scholar

Young, E. and Werner, D. J. (1985b). Effects of shoot, root and shank chilling during rest in apple and peach on growth resumption and carbohydrates. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 110, 769–74Google Scholar

Young, E. and Werner, D. W. (1986). 6-BA applied after shoot and/or root chilling and its effect on growth resumption in apple and peach. HortScience 21, 280–81Google Scholar

Young, E., Dautlick, T. K. and Belding, R. D. (1995). Respiratory changes during dormancy breaking of apple trees. Acta Horticulturae 395, 21–33CrossRef Google Scholar

Zhang, Y. X. and Lespinasse, Y. (1991). Removal of embryonic dormancy in apple (Malus × domestica Borkh) by 6-benzylaminopurine. Scientia Horticulturae 46, 215–23CrossRef Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.