Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-pkds5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-12T02:02:11.224Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Crosslinguistic Distribution of Vowel and Consonant Intrinsic F0 Effects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2026

Connie Ting ,
Meghan Clayards ,
Morgan Sonderegger  and
Michael McAuliffe
Connie Ting*
Affiliation:
McGill University
Meghan Clayards*
Affiliation:
McGill University and Centre for Research on Brain, Language, and Music
Morgan Sonderegger*
Affiliation:
McGill University and Centre for Research on Brain, Language, and Music
Michael McAuliffe*
Affiliation:
McGill University
*
[connie.ting@mail.mcgill.ca]
[meghan.clayards@mcgill.ca]
[morgan.sonderegger@mcgill.ca]
[michael.e.mcauliffe@gmail.com]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Vowels vary systematically in F0 based on intrinsic properties of the vowel (e.g. height: VF0) and preceding obstruent (e.g. voicing: CF0). These patterns have been attested in most languages studied, raising the possibility that they stem from physiological sources. However, previous results show a range of variability in maximum effect size and duration. One explanation is that variation could be learned and increased to enhance phonological contrasts or suppressed for functional reasons (e.g. for tone languages). Alternatively, differences could be due to physiological factors such as laryngeal contrast type. We map out the distribution of intrinsic F0 effects across twenty languages, using large corpora of read speech, operationalizing CF0 as the difference between stop series that most closely approximate phonologically ‘voiced’ and ‘voiceless’ stops. We find that both VF0 and CF0 effects are present and are in the same direction in all languages examined, but languages vary greatly in effect size. While some of this variability may be due to phonological properties of the languages (e.g. tone), and some variability in CF0 may be due to the diverse phonetic realizations of ‘voicing’ across languages, much of this variability remains to be explained. We find that the CF0 effect is consistently at least as large as the VF0 effect and is more variable across languages, suggesting a possible explanation for the tendency for CF0 effects to lead to sound change much more often than VF0 effects do. While our results on variability in CF0 effects rely on the validity of ‘lumping’ together diverse phonetic realizations, those on the robustness of CF0 and VF0 and on the variability in VF0 hold regardless. These results motivate further investigation to deepen our understanding of intrinsic F0 effects, their crosslinguistic distribution, and their role as precursors to sound change.

Keywords

intrinsic F0sound changecrosslinguistic variationcorpus phonetics

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Language , Volume 101 , Issue 1 , March 2025 , pp. 1 - 36
Copyright
Copyright © 2025 Linguistic Society of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Andrus, Tony, Bishop, Judith, Dubinski, Eyal, Fiscus, Jonathan G., Gillies, Breanna, Harper, Mary, Hazen, T. J., Hefright, Brook; et al. 2016. IARPA Babel Cantonese language pack (IARPA-babel101b-v0.4c). Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium. DOI: 10.35111/4m6a-1x29.Google Scholar
Baayen, R. Harald, Piepenbrock, Richard; and Gulikers, Léon. 1995. CELEX2. Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium. DOI: 10.35111/gs6s-gm48.Google Scholar
Babinski, Sarah. 2021. Intrinsic F0 and sound change: Evidence from Australian languages. Proceedings of the 2020 Annual Meeting on Phonology. DOI: 10.3765/amp.v9i0.4914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell-Berti, Fredericka. 1975. Control of pharyngeal cavity size for English voiced and voiceless stops. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 57. 456–61. DOI: 10.1121/1.380468.Google ScholarPubMed
Bethin, Christina Y. 2006. Stress and tone in East Slavic dialects. Phonology 23. 125–56. DOI: 10.1017/S0952675706000868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boersma, Paul, and Weenink, David. 2020. Praat: Doing phonetics by computer. Online: https://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/.Google Scholar
Caisse, Michelle. 1981. Cross-linguistic differences in fundamental frequency perturbation induced by voiceless unaspirated stops. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 70.S76–S77. DOI: 10.1121/1.2019036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Leo, and Norman, Jerry. 1965. An introduction to the Foochow dialect. San Francisco: San Francisco State College.Google Scholar
Chen, Yiya. 2011. How does phonology guide phonetics in segment–f0 interaction? Journal of Phonetics 39. 612–25. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2011.04.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cho, Taehong, and Keating, Patricia A.. 2009. Effects of initial position versus prominence in English. Journal of Phonetics 37. 466–85. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2009.08.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clements, George N., and Khatiwada, Rajesh. 2007. Phonetic realization of contrastively aspirated affricates in Nepali. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS), Saarbrücken, 629–32. Online: http://www.icphs2007.de/conference/Papers/1650/index.html.Google Scholar
Coetzee, Andries W., Beddor, Patrice Speeter, Shedden, Kerby, Styler, Will; and Wissing, Daan. 2018. Plosive voicing in Afrikaans: Differential cue weighting and tonogenesis. Journal of Phonetics 66. 185–216. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2017.09.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Jacob. 1988. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd edn. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Connell, Bruce. 2002. Tone languages and the universality of intrinsic F0: Evidence from Africa. Journal of Phonetics 30. 101–29. DOI: 10.1006/jpho.2001.0156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, William E., and Sorensen, John M.. 2012. Fundamental frequency in sentence production. New York: Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-8093-1.Google Scholar
Coretta, Stefano. 2023. tidymv: Tidy model visualisation for generalised additive models. R package version 3.4.2. Online: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=tidymv.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Cristo, Albert. 1985. De la microprosodie à l'intonosyntaxe. Aix-en-Provence: Publications de l'Université de Provence.Google Scholar
Di Cristo, Albert, and Hirst, Daniel J.. 1986. Modelling French micromelody: Analysis and synthesis. Phonetica 43. 11–30. DOI: 10.1159/000261758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diehl, Randy L. 1991. The role of phonetics within the study of language. Phonetica 48. 120–34. DOI: 10.1159/000261880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diffloth, Gérard. 1982. Registres, dévoisement, timbres vocaliques: Leur histoire en Katouique. Mon-Khmer Studies 11. 47–82. Online: http://sealang.net/sala/mks/htm/11/Katuic.htm.Google Scholar
Dmitrieva, Olga, Llanos, Fernando, Shultz, Amanda A.; and Francis, Alexander L.. 2015. Phonological status, not voice onset time, determines the acoustic realization of onset f0 as a secondary voicing cue in Spanish and English. Journal of Phonetics 49. 77–95. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2014.12.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyhr, Niels. 1982. The activity of the cricothyroid muscle and the intrinsic fundamental frequency in Danish vowels. Phonetica 47. 141–54. DOI: 10.1159/000261859.Google Scholar
Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli. 1990. Intrinsic F0 in tense and lax vowels with special reference to German. Phonetica 47. 99–140. DOI: 10.1159/000261858.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francis, Alexander L., Ciocca, Valter, Ka, Virginia Wong, Man; and Ka, Jess Chan, Lam. 2006. Is fundamental frequency a cue to aspiration in initial stops? The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 120. 2884–49. DOI: 10.1121/1.2346131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gandour, Jack. 1974. Consonant types and tone in Siamese. Journal of Phonetics 2. 337–50. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(19)31303-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gao, Jiayin, and Arai, Takayuki. 2019. Plosive (de-)voicing and f0 perturbations in Tokyo Japanese: Positional variation, cue enhancement, and contrast recovery. Journal of Phonetics 77:10932. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2019.100932.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, Andrew, and Johnson, Keith. 2013. Phonetic bias in sound change. Origins of sound change: Approaches to phonologization, ed. by Yu, Alan C. L., 51–97. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573745.003.0003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geissler, Christopher, Shaw, Jason A., Tiede, Mark; and Hu, Fang. 2021. Eccentric C-V timing across speakers of diaspora Tibetan with and without lexical tone contrasts. Proceedings of the 12th International Seminar on Speech Production (ISSP 2020), 162–66. Online: https://issp2020.yale.edu/ProcISSP2020.pdf.Google Scholar
Gonzales, Ashleigh. 2009. Intrinsic F0 in Shona vowels: A descriptive study. Selected proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 145–55. Online: https://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/39/abstract2194.html.Google Scholar
Greenberg, Joseph H. 2005. On lumping and splitting in linguistics and biology. Genetic linguistics: Essays on theory and method, ed. by Croft, William, 115–17. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199257713.003.0007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guo, Yuting. 2020. Production and perception of laryngeal contrasts in Mandarin and English by Mandarin speakers. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University dissertation.Google Scholar
Halle, Morris, and Stevens, Kenneth N.. 1971. A note on laryngeal features. Quarterly Progress Report, MIT Research Lab. of Electronics 101. 198–213. Online: http://web.mit.edu/morrishalle/pubworks/papers/1971_Halle_Stevens_Note_Laryngeal_Features_MIT_QPR_101.pdf.Google Scholar
Han, Mieko S., and Weitzman, Raymond S.. 1965. Studies in the phonology of Asian languages III: Acoustic characteristics of Korean stop consonants. Los Angeles: Acoustic Phonetics Research Laboratory, University of Southern California.Google Scholar
Hanson, Helen M. 2009. Effects of obstruent consonants on fundamental frequency at vowel onset in English. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 125. 425–41. DOI: 10.1121/1.3021306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helgason, Pétur, and Ringen, Catherine. 2008. Voicing and aspiration in Swedish stops. Journal of Phonetics 36. 607–28. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2008.02.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hombert, Jean-Marie. 1977. Consonant types, vowel height and tone in Yoruba. Studies in African Linguistics 8. 173–90. DOI: 10.32473/sal.v8i2.107620.Google Scholar
Hombert, Jean-Marie. 1978. Consonant types, vowel quality, and tone. Tone: A linguistic survey, ed. by Fromkin, Victoria A., 77–111. New York: Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-267350-4.50008-X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hombert, Jean-Marie, Ohala, John J.; and Ewan, William G.. 1979. Phonetic explanations for the development of tones. Language 55. 37–58. DOI: 10.2307/412518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honda, Kiyoshi, Hirai, Hiroyuki, Masaki, Shinobu; and Shimada, Yasuhiro. 1999. Role of vertical larynx movement and cervical lordosis in F0 control. Language and Speech 42. 401–11. DOI: 10.1177/00238309990420040301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoole, Philip, and Honda, Kiyoshi. 2011. Automaticity vs. feature-enhancement in the control of segmental F0. Where do phonological features come from?: Cognitive, physical and developmental bases of distinctive speech categories, ed. by Clements, G. Nick and Ridouane, Rachid, 133–71. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
House, Arthur S., and Fairbanks, Grant. 1953. The influence of consonant environment upon the secondary acoustical characteristics of vowels. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 25. 105–13. DOI: 10.1121/1.1906982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howie, John M. 1976. Acoustical studies of Mandarin vowels and tones. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hunnicutt, Leigh, and Morris, Paul A.. 2009. Prevoicing and aspiration in Southern American English. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics (Proceedings of the 39th Annual Penn Linguistics Conference) 22(1). 215–24. Online: https://repository.upenn.edu/handle/20.500.14332/45091.Google Scholar
Hyman, Larry. 1976. Phonologization. Linguistic studies presented to Joseph H. Greenberg, ed. by Juilland, Alphonse, 407–18. Saratoga: Anma Libri.Google Scholar
Hyman, Larry. 2013. Enlarging the scope of phonologization. Origins of sound change: Approaches to phonologization, ed. by Yu, Alan C. L., 3–28. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199573745.003.0001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacewicz, Ewa, and Fox, Robert Allen. 2015. Intrinsic fundamental frequency of vowels is moderated by regional dialect. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 138. EL405–EL410. DOI: 10.1121/1.4934178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeel, Vivi. 1975. An investigation of the fundamental frequency of vowels after various Danish consonants, in particular stop consonants. Annual Report of the Institute of Phonetics 9. 191–211.Google Scholar
Jessen, Michael, and Ringen, Catherine. 2002. Lar yngeal features in German. Phonology 19. 189–218. DOI: 10.1017/S0952675702004311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jessen, Michael, and Roux, Justus C.. 2002. Voice quality differences associated with stops and clicks in Xhosa. Journal of Phonetics 30. 1–52. DOI: 10.1006/jpho.2001.0150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagaya, Ryohei. 1974. A fiberscopic and acoustic study of the Korean stops, affricates and fricatives. Journal of Phonetics 2. 161–80. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(19)31191-X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagaya, Ryohei, and Hirose, Hajime. 1975. Fiberoptic, electromyographic, and acoustic analyses of Hindi stop consonants. Annual Bulletin of the Research Institute of Logopedics and Phoniatrics 9. 27–46.Google Scholar
Kang, Yoonjung. 2014. Voice onset time merger and development of tonal contrast in Seoul Korean stops: A corpus study. Journal of Phonetics 45. 76–90. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2014.03.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanwal, Jasmeen, and Ritchart, Amanda. 2015. An experimental investigation of tonogenesis in Punjabi. Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS), Glasgow. Online: https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2015/Papers/ICPHS0929.pdf.Google Scholar
Keating, Patricia A. 1984. Phonetic and phonological representation of stop consonant voicing. Language 60. 286–319. DOI: 10.2307/413642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keating, Patricia A. 1990. Phonetic representations in a generative grammar. Journal of Phonetics 18. 321–34. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30377-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, Ken, and Preacher, Kristopher J.. 2012. On effect size. Psychological Methods 17. 137–52. DOI: 10.1037/a0028086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenstowicz, Michael, and Park, Chiyoun. 2006. Laryngeal features and tone in Kyungsang Korean: A phonetic study. Studies in Phonetics, Phonology and Morphology 12. 247–64. Online: https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE02258203.Google Scholar
Kingston, John. 2007. Segmental influences on F0: Automatic or controlled? Tones and tunes, vol. 2: Experimental studies in word and sentence prosody, ed. by Gussenhoven, Carlos and Riad, Tomas, 171–210. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI: 10.1515/9783110207576.2.171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingston, John. 2011. Tonogenesis. The Blackwell companion to phonology, vol. 4: Phonological interfaces, ed. by van Oostendorp, Marc, Ewen, Colin J., Hume, Elizabeth, and Rice, Keren. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/9781444335262.wbctp0097.Google Scholar
Kingston, John, and Diehl, Randy L.. 1994. Phonetic knowledge. Language 70. 419–54. DOI: 10.2307/416481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, James P. 2018. Onset pitch perturbations and the cross-linguistic implementation of voicing: Evidence from tonal and non-tonal languages. Journal of Phonetics 71. 326–54. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.09.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, James P., Kleber, Felicitas, Siddins, Jessica; and Harrington, Jonathan. 2020. Effects of prosodic prominence on obstruent-intrinsic F0 and VOT in German. Speech Prosody 2020, 210–14. DOI: 10.21437/SpeechProsody.2020-43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, James P., and Ladd, D. Robert. 2016. Effects of obstruent voicing on vowel F0: Evidence from ‘true voicing’ languages. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 140. 2400–2411. DOI: 10.1121/1.4962445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirby, James P., and Sonderegger, Morgan. 2018. Mixed-effects design analysis for experimental phonetics. Journal of Phonetics 70. 70–85. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.05.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, Klaus J. 1982. F0 in the production of lenis and fortis plosives. Phonetica 39. 199–218. DOI: 10.1159/000261663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ladd, Robert D., and Schmid, Stephan. 2018. Obstruent voicing effects on F0, but without voicing: Phonetic correlates of Swiss German lenis, fortis, and aspirated stops. Journal of Phonetics 71. 229–48. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.09.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladd, Robert D., and Silverman, Kim E. A.. 1984. Vowel intrinsic pitch in connected speech. Phonetica 41. 31–40. DOI: 10.1159/000261708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, Yuwen, Huff, Christopher, Sereno, Joan; and Jongman, Allard. 2009. The raising effect of aspirated prevocalic consonants on F0 in Taiwanese. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on East Asian Linguistics.Google Scholar
Lalhminghlui, Wendy, Terhiija, Viyazonuo; and Sarmah, Priyankoo. 2019. Voweltone interaction in two Tibeto-Burman languages. Proceedings of Interspeech 2019, 3970–07. DOI: 10.21437/Interspeech.2019-2808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Jackson L., Ashby, Lucas F. E., Garza, M. Elizabeth, Lee-Sikka, Yeonju, Miller, Sean, Wong, Alan, McCarthy;, Arya D. and Gorman, Kyle. 2020. Massively multilingual pronunciation modeling with WikiPron. Proceedings of the 12th Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC 2020), 4223–32. Online: https://aclanthology.org/2020.lrec-1.521.Google Scholar
Lehiste, Ilse. 1976. Influence of fundamental frequency pattern on the perception of duration. Journal of Phonetics 4. 113–17. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(19)31231-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehiste, Isle, and Peterson, Gordon E.. 1961. Some basic considerations in the analysis of intonation. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 33. 419–25. DOI: 10.1121/1.1908681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenth, Russell V. 2024. emmeans: Estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means. R package version 1.10.2. DOI: 10.32614/CRAN.package.emmeans.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Bin, Guan, Yihan; and Chen, Si. 2020. Carryover effects on tones in Hong Kong Cantonese. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 2020, 489–93. DOI: 10.21437/SpeechProsody.2020-100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lisker, Leigh, and Abramson, Arthur S.. 1964. A cross-language study of voicing in initial stops: Acoustical measurements. Word 20. 384–422. DOI: 10.1080/00437956.1964.11659830.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Löfqvist, Anders, Baer, Thomas, McGarr;, Nancy S. and Story, Robin Seider. 1989. The cricothyroid muscle in voicing control. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 85. 1314–42. DOI: 10.1121/1.397462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lombardi, Linda. 1999. Positional faithfulness and voicing assimilation in optimality theory. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 17. 267–302. DOI: 10.1023/A:1006182130229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, Qian. 2018. Consonantal effects on F0 in tonal languages. East Lansing: Michigan State University dissertation. DOI: 10.25335/waad-8371.Google Scholar
Maddieson, Ian. 1997. Phonetic universals. The handbook of phonetic sciences, ed. by Laver, John and Hardcastle, William J., 619–39. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Matisoff, James A. 1973. Tonogenesis in Southeast Asia. Consonant types and tones, vol. 1, ed. by Hyman, Larry M., 71–95. Los Angeles: Linguistics Program, University of Southern California.Google Scholar
McAuliffe, Michael, Socolof, Michaela, Mihuc, Sarah, Wagner, Michael; and Sonderegger, Morgan. 2017. Montreal Forced Aligner: Trainable text-speech alignment using Kaldi. Proceedings of Interspeech 2017, 498–502. DOI: 10.21437/Interspeech.2017-1386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, Ernst A. 1896. Zur tonbewegung des vokals im gesprochenen und gesungenen einzelwort. Phonetische Studien (Beiblatt zu der Zeitschrift Die Neuren Sprachen) 10. 1–21.Google Scholar
Misnadin, Kirby, James P.; and Remijsen, Bert. 2015. Temporal and spectral properties of Madurese stops. Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS), Glasgow. Online: https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2015/Papers/ICPHS0789.pdf.Google Scholar
Mohamed, Mohamed Abdulla. 2001. Modern Swahili grammar. Nairobi: East African Publishers.Google Scholar
Moreton, Elliott. 2008. Analytic bias and phonological typology. Phonology 25. 83–127. DOI: 10.1017/S0952675708001413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nitta, Tetsuo. 2001. The accent system in the Kanazawa dialect: The relationship between pitch and sound segments. Proceedings of the symposium Cross-Linguistic Studies of Tonal Phenomena: Tonogenesis, Japanese Accentology, and Other Topics, 153–85. Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.Google Scholar
Sprakteknologi, Nordisk. 2020. NST Norwegian ASR Database (16 kHz)—Reorganized. Oslo: The Language Bank. Online: https://www.nb.no/sprakbanken/en/resource-catalogue/oai-nb-no-sbr-54/.Google Scholar
Odden, David. 2010. Features impinging on tone. Tones and features: Phonetic and phonological perspectives, ed. by Goldsmith, John A., Hume, Elizabeth, and Wetzels, Leo, 81–107. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. DOI: 10.1515/9783110246223.81.Google Scholar
Ohala, John J. 1981. The listener as a source of sound change. Chicago Linguistic Society (Parasession on language and behavior) 17(2). 178–203.Google Scholar
Ohala, John J. 1993. The phonetics of sound change. Historical linguistics: Problems and perspectives, ed. by Jones, Charles, 235–78. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Ohala, John J. 1994. Hierarchies of environments for sound variation; plus implications for ‘neutral’ vowels in vowel harmony. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 27. 371–82. DOI: 10.1080/03740463.1994.10420414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohde, Ralph N. 1984. Fundamental frequency as an acoustic correlate of stop consonant voicing. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 75. 224–30. DOI: 10.1121/1.390399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panayotov, Vassil, Chen, Guoguo, Povey, Daniel; and Khudanpur, Sanjeev. 2015. Librispeech: An ASR corpus based on public domain audio books. 2015 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 5206–61. DOI: 10.1109/ICASSP.2015.7178964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, Niels Reinholt. 1978. Intrinsic fundamental frequency of Danish vowels. Journal of Phonetics 6. 177–89. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(19)31150-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinget, Anne-France, and Quené, Hugo, 2023. Effects of obstruent voicing on vowel fundamental frequency in Dutch. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 154. 2124–43. DOI: 10.1121/10.0021070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polomé, Edgar C. 1967. Swahili language handbook. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Online: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED012888.Google Scholar
Pompino-Marschall, Bernd, Steriopolo, Elena; and Żygis, Marzena. 2017. Ukrainian. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 47. 349–57. DOI: 10.1017/S0025100316000372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
R Core Team. 2022. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Online: https://www.R-project.org/.Google Scholar
Sapir, Shimon. 1989. The intrinsic pitch of vowels: Theoretical, physiological, and clinical considerations. Journal of Voice 18. 44–51. DOI: 10.1016/S0892-1997(89)80121-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schertz, Jessamyn, and Khan, Sarah. 2020. Acoustic cues in production and perception of the four-way stop laryngeal contrast in Hindi and Urdu. Journal of Phonetics 81:100979. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2020.100979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuh, Russell G., and Yalwa, Lawan D.. 1993. Hausa. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 23. 77–82. DOI: 10.1017/S0025100300004886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, Tanja, Vu, Ngoc Thang; and Schlippe, Tim. 2013. GlobalPhone: A multilingual text & speech database in 20 languages. 2013 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, 8126–63. DOI: 10.1109/ICASSP.2013.6639248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sebastián-Gallés, Núria. 2000. LEXESP: Léxico informatizado del español. Barcelona: Edicions Universitat Barcelona.Google Scholar
Shadle, Christine H. 1985. Intrinsic fundamental frequency of vowels in sentence context. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 78. 1562–26. DOI: 10.1121/1.392792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sonderegger, Morgan, McAuliffe;, Michael and Bang, Hye-Young. 2017. Segmental influences on f0: Cross-linguistic and interspeaker variability of phonetic precursors. Paper presented at the 4th Workshop on Sound Change.Google Scholar
Márton, Sóskuthy. 2017. Generalised additive mixed models for dynamic analysis in linguistics: A practical introduction. arXiv:1703.05339 [stat.AP]. DOI: 10.48550/arXiv.1703.05339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Márton, Sóskuthy. 2021. Evaluating generalised additive mixed modelling strategies for dynamic speech analysis. Journal of Phonetics 84:101017. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2020.101017.Google Scholar
Steele, Shirley A. 1986. Interaction of vowel F0 and prosody. Phonetica 43. 92–105. DOI: 10.1159/000261763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, Kenneth N., and Keyser, Samuel Jay. 1989. Primary features and their enhancement in consonants. Language 65. 81–106. DOI: 10.2307/414843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svantesson, Jan-Olof. 1989. Tonogenetic mechanisms in northern Mon-Khmer. Phonetica 46. 60–79. DOI: 10.1159/000261829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svantesson, Jan-Olof, and House, David. 2006. Tone production, tone perception and Kammu tonogenesis. Phonology 23. 309–33. DOI: 10.1017/S0952675706000923.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
't Hart, Johan. 1979. Explorations in automatic stylization of f0 curves. IPO Annual Progress Report 14. 61–65.Google Scholar
Taylor, Harold C. 1933. The fundamental pitch of English vowels. Journal of Experimental Psychology 16. 565–82. DOI: 10.1037/h0070672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thurgood, Graham. 2002. Vietnamese and tonogenesis: Revising the model and the analysis. Diachronica 19. 333–63. DOI: 10.1075/dia.19.2.04thu.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Hoof, Sarah, and Verhoeven, Jo. 2011. Intrinsic vowel F0, the size of vowel inventories and second language acquisition. Journal of Phonetics 39. 168–77. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2011.02.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Rij, Jacolien, Wieling, Martijn, Baayen, R. Harald; and van Rijn, Hedderik. 2022. itsadug: Interpreting time series and autocorrelated data using GAMMs. R package version 2.4.1. Online: https://cran.r-project.org/package=itsadug.Google Scholar
Wang, William S.-Y., and Fillmore, Charles J.. 1961. Intrinsic cues and consonant perception. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 4. 130–36. DOI: 10.1044/jshr.0402.130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whalen, Douglas H., and Levitt, Andrea G.. 1995. The universality of intrinsic F0 of vowels. Journal of Phonetics 23. 349–66. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(95)80165-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whalen, Douglas H., Levitt, Andrea G., Hsiao, Pai-Ling; and Smorodinsky, Iris. 1995. Intrinsic F0 of vowels in the babbling of 6-, 9-, and 12-month-old French and English-learning infants. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97. 2533–33. DOI: 10.1121/1.411973.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wieling, Martijn. 2018. Analyzing dynamic phonetic data using generalized additive mixed modeling: A tutorial focusing on articulatory differences between L1 and L2 speakers of English. Journal of Phonetics 70. 86–116. DOI: 10.1016/j.wocn.2018.03.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Simon N. 2017. Generalized additive models: An introduction with R. 2nd edn. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, Ching X., and Xu, Yi. 2003. Effects of consonant aspiration on Mandarin tones. Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet 33. 165–81. DOI: 10.1017/S0025100303001270.Google Scholar
Xu, Yi, and Xu, Anqi. 2021. Consonantal F0 perturbation in American English involves multiple mechanisms. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 149. 2877–79. DOI: 10.1121/10.0004239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zee, Eric. 1980. Tone and vowel quality. Journal of Phonetics 8. 247–58. DOI: 10.1016/S0095-4470(19)31474-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Ting et al. supplementary material

Ting et al. supplementary material
Download Ting et al. supplementary material(File)
File 629.4 KB