Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-jr42d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T07:23:11.195Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Eating disorders and autism spectrum: links and risks

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 November 2020

Barbara Carpita Open the ORCID record for Barbara Carpita [Opens in a new window] ,
Dario Muti ,
Ivan Mirko Cremone ,
Andrea Fagiolini  and
Liliana Dell’Osso
Barbara Carpita
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Dario Muti*
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Ivan Mirko Cremone
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Andrea Fagiolini
Affiliation:
Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
Liliana Dell’Osso
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
*
*Author for correspondence: Dario Muti, Email: dario.muti1986@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the last decades, increasing attention has been provided to socio-cultural and neurobiological factors involved in the psychopathology of feeding and eating disorders (FED), encouraging a multifactorial approach. In this framework, several authors stressed an association between FED and other kinds of psychiatric disorders from both a psychopathological and a neurobiological point of view. In particular, many promising contributions are focusing on the possible link between FED and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Growing interest about this association rose from the frequently reported evidence of ASD-like traits amongst FED patients and abnormal eating behaviors amongst patients with ASD. This narrative review overview aims to summarize the most relevant findings about the overlap between different kinds of FED and the autism spectrum, taking into account the most recent hypotheses about the psychopathology of both these conditions. While most of the studies focused on anorexia nervosa, both ASD and autistic traits seem to be detectable also in other kinds of FED. In addition, the recently increased interest toward a dimensional approach to psychopathology led to progressively broadening the concept of ASD, focusing on its subthreshold and gender-specific manifestations and on its link with other psychiatric conditions, including FED. Globally the studies summarized here provide further support to theoretical models featuring a neurodevelopmental approach for mental disorders. In particular, FED have been conceptualized as a possible psychopathological trajectory of a neurodevelopmental alteration, toward which female gender would act as one of many predisposing factors.

Keywords

Autistic traitsbroad autism phenotypeautism spectrum disorderanorexia nervosaeating disordersgender
Type
Review
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , June 2022 , pp. 272 - 280
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, TX: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
Culbert, KM, Racine, SE, Klump, KL. Research review: what we have learned about the causes of eating disorders—a synthesis of sociocultural, psychological, and biological research. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015;56(11):1141–1164. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VFC, Di Nicola. Anorexia multiforms: self starvation in historical and cultural context. Part I. Transcult Psychiatr Res Rev. 1990;27(3):165–196. doi:10.1177/136346159002700301.Google Scholar
VFC, Di Nicola. Anorexia multiforms: self starvation in historical and cultural context. Part II. Transcult Psychiatr Res Rev. 1990;27(4):245–286. doi:10.1177/136346159002700401.Google Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Abelli, M, Carpita, B, et al. Historical evolution of the concept of anorexia nervosa and relationships with orthorexia nervosa, autism, and obsessive-compulsive spectrum. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2016;12:1651–1660. doi:10.2147/NDT.S108912.Google ScholarPubMed
Bemporad, JR. Cultural and historical aspects of eating disorders. Theor Med. 1997;18(4):401–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallman, C. Ascetism. In: Edwards, P, eds. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan; 1967:171–174.Google Scholar
Fox, RL. Pagans and Christians: Religion and the Religious Life from the Second to the Fourth Century AD, When the Gods of Olympus Lost Their Dominion and Christianity, with the Conversion of Constantine, Triumphed in the Mediterranean World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc; 1987.Google Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Carpita, B, Muti, D, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of orthorexia nervosa in a sample of university students in Italy. Eat Weight Disord. 2018;23(1):55–65. doi:10.1007/s40519-017-0460-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, RM. Holy Anorexia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandereycken, W, Van Deth, R. From Fasting Saints to Anorexic Girls: The History of Self-starvation. New York: New York University Press; 1994.Google Scholar
Harris, JC. Anorexia nervosa and anorexia mirabilis: Miss K. R. and St Catherine of Siena. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(11):1212–1213. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.2765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumberg, JJ. Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa. New York: Penguin Book; 1988.Google Scholar
Pike, KM, Dunne, PE. The rise of eating disorders in Asia: a review. J Eat Disord. 2015;3:33. doi:10.1186/s40337-015-0070-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Hoeken, D, Burns, JK, Hoek, HW. Epidemiology of eating disorders in Africa. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2016;29(6):372–377. doi:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Abelli, M, Carpita, B, et al. Orthorexia nervosa in a sample of Italian university population. Riv Psichiatr. 2016;51(5):190–196. doi:10.1708/2476.25888.Google Scholar
Ngai, ES, Lee, S, Lee, AM. The variability of phenomenology in anorexia nervosa. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2020;102:314–317. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102004314.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, U. Aetiology of eating disorders in the 21(st) century: new answers to old questions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;12(Suppl 1):I30–I37. doi:10.1007/s00787-003-1105-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marucci, S, Ragione, LD, De Iaco, G, et al. Anorexia nervosa and comorbid psychopathology. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2018;18(4):316–324. doi:10.2174/1871530318666180213111637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altman, SE, Shankman, SA. What is the association between obsessive–compulsive disorder and eating disorders? Clin Psychol Rev. 2009;29(7):638–646. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McElroy, SL, Kotwal, R, Keck, PE, et al. Comorbidity of bipolar and eating disorders: distinct or related disorders with shared dysregulations? J Affect Disord. 2005;86(2–3):107–127. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2004.11.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odent, M. Autism and anorexia nervosa: two facets of the same disease? Med Hypotheses. 2010;75(1):79–81. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2010.01.039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postorino, V, Scahill, L, De Peppo, L, et al. Investigation of autism spectrum disorder and autistic traits in an adolescent sample with anorexia nervosa. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(4):1051–1061. doi:10.1007/s10803-016-3023-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Carpita, B, Bertelloni, CA, et al. Subthreshold autism spectrum in bipolar disorder: prevalence and clinical correlates. Psychiatry Res. 2019;281:112605. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Carpita, B, Muti, D, et al. Mood symptoms and suicidality across the autism spectrum. Compr Psychiatry. 2019;91:34–38. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.03.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Carpita, B, Cremone, IM, et al. The mediating effect of trauma and stressor related symptoms and ruminations on the relationship between autistic traits and mood spectrum. Psychiatry Res. 2019;279:123–129. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.10.040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, C. Are autism and anorexia nervosa related? Br J Psychiatr. 1983;142–428. doi:10.1192/bjp.142.4.428b.Google ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, C. Autism and anorexia nervosa: related conditions? Nordisk Psykiatrisk Tidsskrift. 1985;39:307–312. doi:10.3109/08039488509101911.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westwood, H, Eisler, I, Mandy, W, et al. Using the autism-spectrum quotient to measure autistic traits in anorexia nervosa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46(3):964–977. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2641-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westwood, H, Tchanturia, K. Autism spectrum disorder in anorexia nervosa: an updated literature review. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2017;19(7):41. doi:10.1007/s11920-017-0791-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Carpita, B, Gesi, C, et al. Subthreshold autism spectrum disorder in patients with eating disorders. Compr Psychiatry. 2018;81:66–72. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.11.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nickel, K, Maier, S, Endres, D, et al. Systematic review: overlap between eating, autism spectrum, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:708. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zucker, NL, Losh, M, Bulik, CM, et al. Anorexia nervosa and autism spectrum disorders: guided investigation of social cognitive endophenotypes. Psychol Bull. 2007;133:976–1006. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lai, MC, Baron-Cohen, S, Buxbaum, JD. Understanding autism in the light of sex/gender. Mol Autism. 2015;6:24. doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0021-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lai, MC, Lombardo, MV, Auyeung, B, et al. Sex/gender differences and autism: setting the scene for future research. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015;54:11–24. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.10.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tchanturia, K, Anderluh, MB, Morris, RG, et al. Cognitive flexibility in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004;10(4):513–520. doi:10.1017/S1355617704104086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tchanturia, K, Happe, F, Godley, J, et al. “Theory of mind” in anorexia nervosa. Eu Eat Disord Rev. 2004;12(6):361–366. doi:10.1002/erv.608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldershaw, A, Treasure, J, Hambrook, D, et al. Is anorexia nervosa a version of autism spectrum disorders? Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2011;19(6):462–474. doi:10.1002/erv.1069.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westwood, H, Mandy, W, Tchanturia, K. Clinical evaluation of autistic symptoms in women with anorexia nervosa. Mol Autism. 2017;8:12. doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0128-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Lorenzi, P, Carpita, B. Autistic traits and illness trajectories. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2019;15:94–98. doi:10.2174/1745017901915010094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Råstam, M, Gillberg, C, Garton, M. Anorexia nervosa in a Swedish urban region. A population based study. Br J Psychiatry. 1989;155:642–646. doi:10.1192/bjp.155.5.642.Google Scholar
Råstam, M. Anorexia nervosa in 51 Swedish adolescents: premorbid problems and comorbidity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31:5. doi:10.1097/00004583-199209000-00007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, C, Råstam, M, Gillberg, C. Anorexia nervosa outcome: six-year controlled longitudinal study of 51 cases including a population cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(5):729–739. doi:10.1097/00004583-199406000-00014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, C, Råstam, M, Gillberg, C. Anorexia nervosa 6 years after onset: part I. Personality disorders. Compr Psychiatry. 1995;36(1):61–69. doi:10.1016/0010-440X(95)90100-A.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Råstam, M, Gillberg, C, Gillberg, IC, et al. Alexithymia in anorexia nervosa: a controlled study using the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1997;95(5):385–388. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb09650.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wentz Nilsson, E, Gillberg, C, Råstam, M. Familial factors in anorexia nervosa: a community based study. Compr Psychiatry. 1998;39(6):392–399. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(98)90053-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wentz Nilsson, E, Gillberg, IC, Gillberg, C, et al. Ten-year follow-up of adolescent-onset anorexia nervosa: personality disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38(11):1389–1395. doi:10.1097/00004583-199911000-00013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wentz, E, Gillberg, C, Gillberg, IC, et al. Ten-year follow-up of adolescent-onset anorexia nervosa: psychiatric disorders and overall functioning scales. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2001;42(5):613–622. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00757.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Råstam, M, Gillberg, C, Wentz, E. Outcome of teenage onset anorexia nervosa in a Swedish community based sample. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;12:78–90. doi:10.1007/s00787-003-1111-y.Google Scholar
Wentz, E, Gillberg, C, Anckarsäter, H, et al. Adolescent-onset anorexia nervosa:18-year outcome. Br J Psych. 2009;194:168–174. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.048686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anckarsäter, H, Horfuander, B, Billstedt, E, et al. The sociocommunicative deficit subgroup in anorexia nervosa: autism spectrum disorders and neurocognition in a community based longitudinal study. Psychol Med. 2012;42(9):1957–1967. doi:10.1017/S0033291711002881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nielsen, S, Anckarsäter, H, Gillberg, C, et al. Effects of autism spectrum disorders on outcome in teenage-onset anorexia nervosa evaluated by the Morgan-Russell outcome assessment schedule: a controlled community-based study. Mol Autism. 2015;6:14. doi:10.1186/s13229-015-0013-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huke, V, Turk, J, Saeidi, S, et al. Autism spectrum disorders in eating disorder populations: a systematic review. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2013;21(5):345–351. doi:10.1002/erv.2244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pooni, J, Ninteman, A, Bryant-Waugh, R, et al. Investigating autism spectrum disorder and autistic traits in early onset eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2012;45(4):583–591. doi:10.1002/eat.20980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhind, C, Bonfioli, E, Hibbs, R, et al. An examination of autism spectrum traits in adolescents with anorexia nervosa and their parents. Mol Autism. 2014;5(1):56. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-5-56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westwood, H, Mandy, W, Simic, M, et al. Assessing ASD in adolescent females with anorexia nervosa using clinical and developmental measures: a preliminary investigation. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2018;46(1):183–192. doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0301-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wentz, E, Lacey, JH, Waller, G, et al. Childhood onset neuropsychiatric disorders in adult eating disorder patients. A pilot study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;14(8):431–437. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0494-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandy, W, Tchanturia, K. Do women with eating disorders who have social and flexibility difficulties really have autism? A case series. Mol Autism. 2015;6:6. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-6-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentz, M, Jepsen, JRM, Pedersen, T, et al. Impairment of social function in young females with recent-onset anorexia nervosa and recovered individuals. J Adolesc Health. 2017;60(1):23–32. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.08.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sedgewick, F, Kerr-Gaffney, J, Leppanen, J, et al. Anorexia nervosa, autism, and the ADOS: how appropriate is the new algorithm in identifying cases? Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:507. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marí-Bauset, S, Zazpe, I, Mari-Sanchis, A, et al. Food selectivity in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. J Child Neurol. 2014;29(11):1554–1561. doi:10.1177/0883073813498821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spek, AA, van Rijnsoever, W, van Laarhoven, L, et al. Eating problems in men and women with an autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019; doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03931-3. [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
Fisman, S, Steele, M, Short, J, et al. Case study: anorexia nervosa and autistic disorder in an adolescent girl. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(7):937–940. doi:10.1097/00004583-199607000-00021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpita, B, Muti, D, Dell'Osso, L. Oxidative stress, maternal diabetes, and autism spectrum disorders. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2018;2018:3717215. doi:10.1155/2018/3717215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpita, B, Marazziti, D, Palego, L, et al. Microbiota, immune system and autism spectrum disorders. An integrative model towards novel treatment options. Curr Med Chem. 2019; doi:10.2174/0929867326666190328151539. [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
Sobanski, E, Marcus, A, Hennighausen, K, et al. Further evidence for a low body weight in male children and adolescents with Asperger’s disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;8(4):312–314. doi:10.1007/s007870050106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bölte, S, Ozkara, N, Poustka, F. Autism spectrum disorders and low body weight is there really a systematic association? Int J Eat Disord. 2002;31(3):349–351. doi:10.1002/eat.10015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalyva, E. Comparison of eating attitudes between adolescent girls with and without Asperger syndrome: daughters’ and mothers’ reports. J Autism Dev Disord. 2008;39(3):480–486.doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0648-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karjalainen, L, Gillberg, C, Råstam, M, et al. Eating disorders and eating pathology in young adult and adult patients with ESSENCE. Compr Psychiatry. 2016;66:79–86. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.12.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpita, B, Carmassi, C, Calderoni, S, et al. The broad autism phenotype in real-life: clinical and functional correlates of autism spectrum symptoms and rumination among parents of patients with autism spectrum disorder. CNS Spectr. 2019;1–9. doi:10.1017/S1092852919001615. [Epub ahead of print].Google ScholarPubMed
Losh, M, Adolphs, R, Poe, MD, et al. Neuropsychological profile of autism and the broad autism phenotype. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(5):518–526. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sucksmith, E, Roth, I, Hoekstra, RA. Autistic traits below the clinical threshold: re-examining the broader autism phenotype in the 21st century. Neuropsychol Rev. 2011;21(4):360–389. doi:10.1007/s11065-011-9183-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
W, De la Marche, Noens, I, Luts, J, et al. Quantitative autism traits in first degree relatives: evidence for the broader autism phenotype in fathers, but not in mothers and siblings. Autism.2012;16(3):247–260. doi:10.1177/1362361311421776.Google Scholar
Berthoz, S, Lalanne, C, Crane, L, et al. Investigating emotional impairments in adults with autism spectrum disorders and the broader autism phenotype. Psychiatry Res. 2013;208(3):257–264. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.05.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sucksmith, E, Allison, C, Baron-Cohen, S, et al. Empathy and emotion recognition in people with autism, first-degree relatives, and controls. Neuropsychologia. 2013;51(1):98–105. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.11.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozonoff, S, Young, GS, Belding, A, et al. The broader autism phenotype in infancy: when does it emerge? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014;53(4):398–407. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.12.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Billeci, L, Calderoni, S, Conti, E, et al. The broad autism (endo)phenotype: neurostructural and neurofunctional correlates in parents of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Front Neurosci. 2016;10:346. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takara, K, Kondo, T. Comorbid atypical autistic traits as a potential risk factor for suicide attempts among adult depressed patients: a case control study. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2014;13(1), 33. doi:10.1186/s12991-014-0033-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Bertelloni, CA, Di Paolo, M, et al. Problematic internet use in university students attending three superior graduate schools in Italy: is autism spectrum related to suicide risk? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(7):piiE1098. doi:10.3390/ijerph16071098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S, Wheelwright, S, Skinner, R, et al. The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. J Autism Dev Disord. 2001;31(1):5–17. doi:10.1023/A:1005653411471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kato, K, Mikami, K, Akama, F, et al. Clinical features of suicide attempts in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2013;35(1):50–53. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2012.09.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skylark, WJ, Baron-Cohen, S. Initial evidence that non-clinical autistic traits are associated with lower income. Mol Autism. 2017;8:61. doi:10.1186/s13229-017-0179-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suzuki, T, Miyaki, K, Eguchi, H, et al. Distribution of autistic traits and their association with sociodemographic characteristics in Japanese workers. Autism. 2018;22(8):907–914. doi:10.1177/1362361317716605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Cremone, IM, Carpita, B, et al. Correlates of autistic traits among patients with borderline personality disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 2018;83:7–11. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.01.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Conversano, C, Corsi, M, et al. Polysubstance and behavioral addictions in a patient with bipolar disorder: role of lifetime subthreshold autism spectrum. Case Rep Psychiatry. 2018;2018:1547975. doi:10.1155/2018/1547975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpita, B, Muti, D, Muscarella, A, et al. Sex differences in the relationship between PTSD spectrum symptoms and autistic traits in a sample of university students. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2019;15:110–119. doi:10.2174/1745017901915010110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strober, M, Freeman, R, Morrell, W. The long-term course of severe anorexia nervosa in adolescents: survival analysis of recovery, relapse, and outcome predictors over 10-15 years in a prospective study. J Eat Disord. 1997;22(4):339–360. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098108X(199712)22:4<339::AID-EAT1>3.0.CO;2-N.3.0.CO;2-N>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klump, KL, Bulik, CM, Pollice, C, et al. Temperament and character in women with anorexia nervosa. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2000;188(9):559–567. doi:10.1097/00005053-200009000-00001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulik, CM, Tozzi, F, Anderson, C, et al. The relation between eating disorders and components of perfectionism. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(2):366–368. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderluh, MB, Tchanturia, K, Rabe-Hesketh, S, et al. Childhood obsessive-compulsive personality traits in adult women with eating disorders: defining a broader eating disorder phenotype. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(2):242–247. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, IC, Billstedt, E, Wentz, E, et al. Attention, executive functions, and mentalizing in anorexia nervosa eighteen years after onset of eating disorder. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2010;32(4):358–365. doi:10.1080/13803390903066857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caglar-Nazali, HP, Corfield, F, Valentina, C, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of “systems for social processes” in eating disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013;42:55–92. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treasure, J. Coherence and other autistic spectrum traits and eating disorders: building from mechanism to treatment. The Birgit Olsson lecture. Nord J Psychiatry. 2013;67(1):38–42. doi:10.3109/08039488.2012.674554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tchanturia, K, Smith, E, Weineck, F, et al. Exploring autistic traits in anorexia: a clinical study. Mol Autism. 2013;4:44. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-4-44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carton, AM, Smith, AD. Assessing the relationship between eating disorder psychopathology and autistic traits in a non-clinical adult population. Eat Weight Disord. 2014;19(3):285–293. doi:10.1007/s40519-013-0086-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J. Autism as an Executive Disorder. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1997.Google Scholar
Holliday, J, Tchanturia, K, Landau, S, et al. Is impaired set-shifting an endophenotype of anorexia nervosa? Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(12):2269–2275. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, M, Tanaka, K, Miyaoka, H. Reliability and validity of Communication Skills Questionnaire (CSQ). Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;60(2):211–218. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2006.01488.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez, C, Tchanturia, K, Stahl, D, et al. Central coherence in eating disorders: a systematic review. Psychol Med. 2008;38(10):1393–1404. doi:10.1017/S0033291708003486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tchanturia, K, Davies, H, Harrison, A, et al. Altered social hedonic processing in eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 2012;45(8):962–969. doi:10.1002/eat.22032.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S, Jaffa, T, Davies, S, et al. Do girls with anorexia nervosa have elevated autistic traits? Mol Autism. 2013;4:24. doi:10.1186/2040-2392-4-24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hambrook, D, Brown, G, Tchanturia, K. Emotional intelligence in anorexia nervosa: is anxiety a missing piece of the puzzle? Psychiatry Res. 2012;200(1):12–19. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.05.017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chevallier, C, Grezes, J, Molesworth, C, et al. Brief report: selective social anhedonia in high functioning autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2012;42(7):1504–1509. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1364-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petrides, K, Hudry, K, Michalaria, G, et al. A comparison of the trait emotional intelligence profiles of individuals with and without Asperger syndrome. Autism. 2011;15(6):671–682. doi:10.1177/1362361310397217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, H, Schmidt, U, Stahl, D, et al. Evoked facial emotional expression and emotional experience in people with anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2011;44(6):531–539. doi:10.1002/eat.20852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, ME, Tchanturia, K, Stahl, D, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of set-shifting ability in eating disorders. Psychol Med. 2007;37(8):1075–1084. doi:10.1017/S0033291707009877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillberg, IC, Rastam, M, Wentz, E, et al. Cognitive and executive functions in anorexia nervosa ten years after onset of eating disorder. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2007;29(2):170–178. doi:10.1080/13803390600584632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björnsdotter, M, Davidovic, M, Karjalainen, L, et al. Grey matter correlates of autistic traits in women with anorexia nervosa. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2018;43(2):79–86. doi:10.1503/jpn.170072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, A, Sullivan, S, Tchanturia, K, et al. Emotional functioning in eating disorders: attentional bias, emotion recognition and emotion regulation. Psychol Med. 2010;40(11):1887–1897. doi:10.1017/S0033291710000036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medina-Pradas, C, Navarro, JB, Álvarez-Moya, EM, et al. Emotional theory of mind in eating disorders. Int J Clin Health Psychology. 2012;12:189. Google Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Gesi, C, Massimetti, E, et al. Adult autism subthreshold spectrum (AdAS spectrum): validation of a questionnaire investigating subthreshold autism spectrum. Compr Psychiatry. 2017;73:61–83. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.11.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karjalainen, L, Råstam, M, Paulson-Karlsson, G, et al. Do autism spectrum disorder and anorexia nervosa have some eating disturbances in common? Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2019;28(1):69–78. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1188-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vagni, D, Moscone, D, Travaglione, S, et al. Using the Ritvo Autism Asperger Diagnostic Scale-Revised (RAADS-R) disentangle the heterogeneity of autistic traits in an Italian eating disorder population. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2016;32:143–155. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2016.10.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levinson, CA, Rodebaugh, TL. Social anxiety and eating disorder comorbidity: the role of negative social evaluation fears. Eat Behav. 2012;13(1):27–35. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.11.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell'Osso, L, Abelli, M, Pini, S, et al. Dimensional assessment of DSM-5 social anxiety symptoms among university students and its relationship with functional impairment. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10:1325–1332. doi:10.2147/NDT.S59348.Google ScholarPubMed
Marazziti, D, Abelli, M, Baroni, S, et al. Recent findings on the pathophysiology of social anxiety disorder. Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 2014;11(2):91–100.Google Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Abelli, M, Pini, S, et al. The influence of gender on social anxiety spectrum symptoms in a sample of university students. Riv Psichiatr. 2015;50(6):295–301. doi:10.1708/2098.22688.Google Scholar
Marazziti, D, Abelli, M, Baroni, S, et al. Neurobiological correlates of social anxiety disorder: an update. CNS Spectr. 2015;20(2):100–111. doi:10.1017/S109285291400008X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpita, B, Muti, D, Petrucci, A, et al. Overlapping features between social anxiety and obsessive-compulsive spectrum in a clinical sample and in healthy controls: toward an integrative model. CNS Spectr. 2019;1–8. doi:10.1017/S109285291900138X. [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
Rynkiewicz, A, Janas-Kozik, M, Słopień, A. Girls and women with autism. Psychiatr Pol. 2019;53(4):737–752. doi:10.12740/PP/OnlineFirst/95098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, MJ, O’Donovan, MC. Schizophrenia and the neurodevelopmental continuum: evidence from genomics. World Psychiatry. 2017;16(3):227–235. doi:10.1002/wps.20440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dell’Osso, L, Lorenzi, P, Carpita, B. The neurodevelopmental continuum towards a neurodevelopmental gradient hypothesis. J Psychopathol. 2019;25(4):179–182.Google Scholar
Dell’Osso, L, Muti, D, Lorenzi, P, et al. Autistic traits and rumination as vulnerability factors towards post-traumatic stress symptoms: shaping psychopathogical trajectories. J Psychopathol. 2020;26(1):12–20. doi:10.36148/2284-0249-361.Google Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Muti, D, Carpita, B, et al. The Adult Autism Subthreshold Spectrum (AdAS) model: a neurodevelopmental approach to mental disorders. J Psychopathol. 2018;24(3):118–124.Google Scholar
Dell'Osso, L, Cremone, IM, Carpita, B, et al. Rumination, posttraumatic stress disorder, and mood symptoms in borderline personality disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019;15:1231–1238. doi:10.2147/NDT.S198616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sansone, RA, Sansone, LA. Personality pathology and its influence on eating disorders. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2011;8(3):14–18.Google ScholarPubMed
Sloan, E, Hall, K, Moulding, R, et al. Emotion regulation as a transdiagnostic treatment construct across anxiety, depression, substance, eating and borderline personality disorders: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2017;57:141–163. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caslini, M, Bartoli, F, Crocamo, C, et al. Disentangling the association between child abuse and eating disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 2016;78(1):79–90. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belli, H, Ural, C, Akbudak, M, et al. Levels of childhood traumatic experiences and dissociative symptoms in extremely obese patients with and without binge eating disorder. Nord J Psychiatry. 2019;73(8):527–531. doi:10.1080/08039488.2019.1662085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Longo, P, Bertorello, A, Panero, M, et al. Traumatic events and post-traumatic symptoms in anorexia nervosa. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2019;10(1):1682930. doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1682930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed