1 See, e.g., Frowein, Jochen A., Konstitutionalisierung des Völkerrechts, 39 Berichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Völkerrecht 427 (2000); Walter, Christian, Constitutionalizing (Inter)national Governance, 44 German Y.B. Int'l L. 170 (2001); Peters, Anne, Global Constitutionalism in a Nutshell, in Weltinnenrecht – Liber Amicorum Jost Delbrück 535 (2005); Fassbender, Bardo, The Meaning of International Constitutional Law, in Towards World Constitutionalism 837 (Ronald St. John Macdonald & Johnston, Douglas M. eds., 2005); Bogdandy, Armin von, Constitutionalism in International Law: Comment on a Proposal from Germany, 47 Harv. Int'l L. J. 223 (2006); Kennedy, Paul, The Parliament of Man: The United Nations and the Quest for World Government (2006); Wet, Erika de, The International Constitutional Order, 55 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 51 (2006); Kadelbach, Stefan & Kleinlein, Thomas, International Law — a Constitution for Mankind?, 50 German Y.B. Int'l L. 303 (2007). An early “constitutionalist” was Alfred Verdross (Die Verfassung der Völkerrechtsgemeinschaft [1926]). See also Alfred Verdross & Bruno Simma, Universelles Völkerrecht 59 (3d ed. 1984).Google Scholar

2 World Trade Organization, Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization Annex 2 Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes of 15 April 1994, art. 23, available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/28-dsu.pdf [hereinafter Dispute Settlement Rules].Google Scholar

3 Bernhardt, Rudolf, Art. 103, margin note 9, in The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, Vol. Il (Bruno Simma, et al. eds., 2d ed. 2002). See also the Lockerbie cases, 1992 I.C.J. 3 §39 and 1992 I.C.J. 114 § 42 – provisional measures; 1998 I.C.J. 9 §§ 50; 1998 I.C.J. 115 §§ 49 – preliminary objections (due to an out of court-settlement between the parties, there is no ICJ decision on the merits). But see Derek W. Bowett, Judicial and Political Functions of the Security Council and the International Court of Justice, in The Changing Constitution of the United Nations 71, 81 et seq (Hazel, Fox ed. 1997). The U.K. House of Lords held in R. (on the application of Al-Jedda) (FC) v. Secretary for Defence, [2007] U.K.H.L. 58, available at http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldjudgmt.htm) that, by virtue of Art. 103 of the UN Charter, the authorization by S.C. Resolution 1546 (2004) to maintain security in Iraq overrode the rights of individual detainees from Art. 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights (see the case note by Alexander Orakhelashvili, 102 Am. J. Int'l L. 337 (2008)).Google Scholar

4 Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion of 11 April 1949), 1949 I.C.J. 174, 185.Google Scholar

5 See Fassbender supra note 1, at 848 (speaking of “the fog of indistinct constitutional rhetoric”).Google Scholar

6 Jürgen Habermas, The Divided West, 115 (2007). This is a translation by Ciaran Cronin of Jürgen Habermas, Hat die Konstitutionalisierung des Völkerrechts noch eine Chance?, in Der gespaltene Westen 113 et seq (2004).Google Scholar

7 Kant's most relevant pieces are Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht (1784); ///. Vom Verhältnis der Theorie zur Praxis im Völkerrecht in allgemein-philanthropischer, d.i. kosmopolitischer Absicht betrachtet, Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis (1793); Zum ewigen Frieden. Ein philosophischer Entwurf (1795); Die Metaphysik der Sitten, Erster Teil: Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre §§53 (1797).Google Scholar

8 This has been the quasi-official doctrine of the current U.S. administration under George W. Bush after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, first propagated rather aggressively, recently pursued in a more restrained manner.Google Scholar

9 Carl Schmitt, Völkerrechtuche Großraumordnung mit Interventionsverbot für raumfremde Mächte (1991) (1941); Schmitt, Carl, Der Nomos der Erde im Völkerrecht des Jus Publicum Europaeum (1997) (1950).Google Scholar

10 Habermas mentions two further counter-models to the Kantian vision (the neoliberal model of a global market society beyond the state and the post-Marxist scenario of a dispersed empire without a power center) but ultimately considers them as unrealistic. See Habermas, supra note 6, at 185Google Scholar

11 See Guglielmo Verdirame, The Divided West: International Lawyers in Europe and America, 18 Eur. J. Int'l L. 553 (2007).Google Scholar

12 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 179Google Scholar

13 Jean Bodin, Les six Livres de la République (1961) (1583); Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (Rogers, G.A.J. & Schuhmann, Karl eds., 2003) (1651).Google Scholar

14 John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (Laslett, Peter ed., 3d ed. 2005) (1698); Montesquieu, Charles de, De l'Esprit des lois (Goldschmidt, Victor ed. 1979) (1748).Google Scholar

15 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 128.Google Scholar

16 Id. at 135Google Scholar

17 Habermas does not use the term “supranational” in the technical sense in which it is used in European Community law. There it denotes the quasi-federal direct legal relationship between the EC and the individual Union citizens which is based on the direct effect of much of the Community's primary and secondary law.Google Scholar

18 On necessary UN reform measures see Habermas, supra note 6, at 173 and infra VI.Google Scholar

19 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 136. On his concept of the UN constitution, see infra VI.Google Scholar

20 The two fields are obviously not exhaustive but representative of all the problems of global domestic politics.Google Scholar

21 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 136.Google Scholar

22 Id. at 133.Google Scholar

23 Id. at 131.Google Scholar

24 Id. at 138 In the phraseology of the late 18^th century, the term “republican” denotes what we call “democratic,” i.e. a government deriving its legitimacy from the consent of the governed. Cf. Kant, Erster Definitivartikel, Zum Ewigen Frieden supra note 7. See also U.S. Const. art. IV, § 4.Google Scholar

25 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 139Google Scholar

26 Id. at 140Google Scholar

27 Kant assumed that a republican (i.e. democratic) form of government was most conducive to peaceful external behaviour (Zum Ewigen Frieden, Erster Definitivartikel) and that accordingly perpetual peace could best be secured if all states were republics (See Kant, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe, supra note 7, at 354).Google Scholar

28 Habermas, supra note 6, at 141.Google Scholar

29 Id. at 142Google Scholar

30 Protocol on the Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union to Poland and to the United Kingdom, 2007 O.J. (C 306) 156.Google Scholar

31 Id. at 160Google Scholar

32 Compare U.N. Charter art. 2 (4), 51, available at http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html with the League of Nations Covenant art. 10 – 16, available at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/leagcov.htm and their tightening up by the Kellogg-Briand Pact (Treaty providing for the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy) of 27 August 1928, available at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/kbpact/kbpact.htm.Google Scholar

33 Cf. U.N. Charter Preamble, art. 1 (3), 55 (c) and 56. See also the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A, U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. Mtg., U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 12, 1948), available at http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm.Google Scholar

34 Habermas, supra note 6, at 162.Google Scholar

35 One recent example is G.A. Res. 1769 (July 31, 2007) on Darfur.Google Scholar

36 G.A. Res. 60/251 (Mar. 15, 2006), available at http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/r60.htm. See also G.A. Res. 48/141 (Dec. 20, 1993) (establishing the office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights).Google Scholar

37 Habermas, supra note 6, at 162Google Scholar

38 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 124, wrongly invoking Kant's Über den Gemeinspruch, where Kant deals only with states forming a “cosmopolitan commonwealth under a single head.” But see Zum Ewigen Frieden, Erster Definitivartikel, where Kant, in a footnote, spoke of a constitution (based on cosmopolitan right) under which individuals and states may be regarded as citizens of a universal state of mankind.Google Scholar

39 Treaty Establishing the European Community art. 17, Nov. 10, 1997, 1997 O.J. (C 340) 3 [hereinafter EC Treaty].Google Scholar

40 Habermas, supra note 6, at 161.Google Scholar

41 U.N. Charter art. 25, 27 (3), 39Google Scholar

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43 G.A. Res. 827 (May 25, 1993) (amended), available at http://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-e/index.htm; G.A. Res. 955 (Nov. 8, 1994) (amended). (http://69.94.ll.53/ENGLISH/basicdocs/statute/2007.pdf [last visited on 4 August 2008]).Google Scholar

44 See, e.g., S.C. Res. 1267 (Oct. 15, 1999); S.C. Res. 1822 (June 30, 2008), available at http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/.Google Scholar

45 Habermas, supra note 6, at 164.Google Scholar

46 Non-State Actors as New Subjects of International Law (Hofmann, Rainer ed. 1999).Google Scholar

47 The figure of 193 UN members given by Habermas is incorrect. The few territories at least factually outside the UN are Kosovo, Palestine, Taiwan, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and most recently Abchasia and South Ossetia, whose independent statehood is each still open to doubt and has not been universally recognized so far, as well as the Vatican City which is inextricably connected with the Holy See, a non-state subject of international law.Google Scholar

48 The UN Charter contemplates the pacific settlement of disputes to which non-members of the United Nations are parties (U.N. Charter art. 35 (2)) as well as enforcement action against non-members (Thomas M. Franck, Is the U.N. Charter a Constitution?, in Verhandeln für den Frieden. Liber Amicorum Tono Eitel 95, 97 (2003)). See also U.N. Charter art. 2(6).Google Scholar

49 HABERMAS, supra note 6, at 165.Google Scholar

50 See infra VI. 3.Google Scholar

51 Habermas, supra note 6, at 141. See Reparation for injuries supra 4.Google Scholar

52 “Idee zu einer Allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht” (English translation of Ted Humphrey quoted at Habermas, supra note 6, at 122 n. 14).Google Scholar

53 Cf. Louis Henkin's famous aphorism “It is probably the case that almost all nations observe almost all principles of international law and almost all of their obligations almost all of the time” (Louis Henkin, How Nations Behave: Law and Foreign Policy 47 (2d ed. 1979)).Google Scholar

54 See infra VI. 1. (b).Google Scholar

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56 Beyond its wording, Art. 103 of the UN Charter sets aside conflicting obligations also from non-treaty sources (Bernhardt supra note 3, at margin note 21).Google Scholar

57 Habermas, supra note 6, 159 (citing Brun-Otto Bryde, Konstitutionalisierung des Völkerrechts und Internationalisierung des Verfassungsrechts, 42 Der Staat 61, 62 (2003)).Google Scholar

58 Numerous states have made reservations against Art. 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (supra note 55) which was intended to establish the jurisdiction of the ICJ with regard to such disputes.Google Scholar

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60 Id. at 148–149.Google Scholar

61 See supra II. 5.Google Scholar

62 Cf. Aureuus Augustinus, Liber IV, De civitate Dei, §4 (“Justice removed, then, what are kingdoms but great bands of robbers?”)Google Scholar

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65 Id. at 216.Google Scholar

66 See Dispute Settlement Rules supra note 2, at art. 3 (2), 19 (“…Recommendations and rulings of the DSB cannot add to or diminish the rights and obligations provided in the covered agreements.”)Google Scholar

67 I therefore disagree with Habermas's apodictic remark that the WTO has a mandate to make political decisions (Habermas, supra note 6, at 175).Google Scholar

68 World Trade Organization, Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization of 15 April 1994, art. X, available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto.pdf [hereinafter WTO].Google Scholar

69 Id. at art. IX:2.Google Scholar

70 Id. at art. IX:1. According to an official footnote, the body concerned shall be deemed to have decided by consensus if no member, present at the meeting when the decision is taken, formally objects to the proposed decision.Google Scholar

71 Id. at art. IX:3, 4.Google Scholar

72 José E. Alvarez, International Organizations as Law-makers 241 (2005); Qureshi, Asif H. & Ziegler, Andreas R., International Economic Law 223 (2d ed. 2007).Google Scholar

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74 See supra note 47.Google Scholar

75 Schermers, Henry G., We the Peoples of the United Nations, 1 Max Planck Y.B. OF U.N. L. 111 (1997).Google Scholar

76 U.N. Charter, art. 108, 109: Amendments to the UN Charter enter into force once they have been ratified by two-thirds of the UN members, including all the permanent members of the Security Council.Google Scholar

77 Vienna Convention, supra note 55, at art. 39; EC Treaty, supra 39, at art. 48.Google Scholar

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79 Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137, 163 (1803). The first edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica (Edinburgh 1771) had already asserted that the British constitution had established “an empire of laws and not of men.”Google Scholar

80 See the preamble of the Virginia Bill of Rights of 12 June 1776 which is still in force as part of the Constitution of Virginia of 1971, available at http://legis.state.va.us/Laws/search/constofva.pdf.Google Scholar

81 Habermas, supra note 6, at 135; Cottier, Thomas & Hertig, Maya, The Prospects of 21^st Century Constitutionalism, 7 Max Planck Y.B. U.N. L. 261,299 (2003).Google Scholar

82 Cf. Oeter, Stefan, Souveränität — ein überholtes Konzept?, in Tradition und Weltoffenheit des Rechts. Festschrift für Helmut Steinberger 259, 281 (Hans-Joachim Cremer et. al. eds. 2002).Google Scholar

83 Cf. Tomuschat, Christian, International Law as the Constitution of Mankind, in International Law on the Eve of the Twenty-first Century. Views from the International Law Commission 37, 40 (1997).Google Scholar

84 U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, 514 U.S. 779, 838 (1995) (Kennedy, J. concurring). According to the opinion prevailing in Germany since 1871, however, even in a federal system sovereignty is indivisible and belongs to the federal government alone. See Stefan Oeter, Souveränität und Demokratie als Probleme in der “Verfassungsentwicklung” der Europäischen Union, 55 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht 659, 667 (1995).Google Scholar

85 Damian Chalmers et al., European Union Law 182, 196 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

86 See, e.g. Grundgesetz(GG-Basic Law/Constitution) art. 93 (1) No. 2, 2a and 3.Google Scholar

87 Id. at art. 79 (2).Google Scholar

88 See, e.g, U.S. Const. art. VII; EC Treaty, supra 39, at 48.Google Scholar

89 See, e.g. EC Treaty, supra 39, at art. 6 (1); U.S. Const. art. IV § 4; Grundgesetz (GG- Basic Law/Constitution) art. 28.Google Scholar

90 See Grundgesetz (GG- Basic Law/Constitution) art. 1 (3). But see the more limited effect of the federal fundamental rights guarantees on the states in U.S. constitutional law (Erwin Chemerinsky, Constitutional Law 499 (3d ed. 2006)) and in the EU (Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union art. 51 (1), 2000 O.J. (C 364) 21).Google Scholar

91 See infra VI. 3.Google Scholar

92 This is also the essence of Art. 16 of the French Déclaration quoted above: the assurance of fundamental rights pertains to the legitimacy, the separation of powers to the control of governmental power.Google Scholar

93 2007 O.J. (C 306).Google Scholar

94 U.N. Charter art. 25, 39, 103.Google Scholar

95 Abraham Lincoln, Selected Speeches and Writings 405 (First Vintage Books 1992). The Gettysburg formula was adopted by Art. 2 (5) of the French Constitution of 1958 as the maxim of the French Republic, available at http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/connaissance/constitution0708.pdf.Google Scholar

96 Government by the people.Google Scholar

97 Government for the people.Google Scholar

98 Government of the people.Google Scholar

99 Europe has three permanent members (including Russia) and three non-permanent members. Africa has only three non-permanent members, while Asia and Pacific as well as the Americas have one permanent and two non-permanent members.Google Scholar

100 See Thomas Giegerich, “Fork in the Road” — Constitutional Challenges, Chances and Lacunae of UN Reform, 48 German Y. B. Int'l L. 29, 33 (2005).Google Scholar

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107 See supra VI. 1. b).Google Scholar

108 See supra note 44.Google Scholar

109 Pursuant to Art. 34 (1) of the ICJ Statute, only states my be parties in cases before the ICJ. Statute of the International Court of Justice art. 34(1), June 26, 1945, 59 Stat. 1055, [hereinafter ICJ Statute].Google Scholar

110 Giegerich, supra note 100, at 63.Google Scholar

111 E.g. in the Kadi case, 2005 E.C.R. II-3649 [T-315/01].Google Scholar

112 Case C-402/05 P, Kadi v. Council 2008 E.C.J.; Case C-415/05 P, Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council 2008 E.C.J.Google Scholar

113 Id., § 280.Google Scholar

114 Behrami v. France, App. No. No. 71412/01 May 2, 2007); Saramati v. France, Germany and Norway, App. No. 78166/01. See the case note by Pierre Bodeau-Livinec et. al., 102 Am. J. Int'l L. 323 (2008).Google Scholar

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119 Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom, App. No. 35763/97 (Nov. 21, 2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

120 See supra (i).Google Scholar

121 Bosphorous supra note 117, § 155.Google Scholar

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124 See Wet, Erika de & Nollkaemper, André, Review of Security Council Decisions by National Courts, 45 German Y.B. Int'l L. 166, 184(2003).Google Scholar

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126 Mainly for this reason, James Crawford denied the UN Charter's quality as a world constitution (James Crawford, The Charter of the United Nations as a Constitution, in The Changing Constitution of the United Nations 3, 10 et seq. (Hazel, Fox ed. 1997).Google Scholar

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128 Id. Google Scholar

129 In its current form, it has been established by Resolution 1 of the 5^th Session of the Human Rights Council. It is the successor of the old “1503-procedure.” (Human Rights Council Res. 5/1 § 85 (June 18, 2007)).Google Scholar

130 Bosphorous supra note 117, § 156.Google Scholar

131 See also Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Constitutionalism, International Law and “We the Peoples of the United Nations,” in Tradition und Weltoffenheit des Rechts 291, 301 (Hans-Joachim Cremer et. al. eds. 2002).Google Scholar

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137 See Habermas, supra note 6, at 117.Google Scholar

138 Id. at 116.Google Scholar

139 Id. at 147.Google Scholar

140 See supra II. 2.Google Scholar