Introduction

Hysteresis, generational change, dislocation of habitus, social crisis and field restructuring are all terms closely related in Bourdieu's discussion of social phenomena and how they change over time. Consequently, an alternative title for this chapter would be “Bourdieu and change”. Bourdieu saw that hysteresis was a necessary consequence of his definitions of habitus and field as mutually generating and generated. These interrelations are the focus of this chapter. The chapter is presented in three main sections: first, definition and historical context of hysteresis; second, Bourdieu's usage of the concept in his published writing; and, third, some practical applications of the concept are considered. A brief discussion of practical and theoretical implications concludes the chapter.

Bourdieu and change

Change is a necessary consequence of Bourdieu's definitions of habitus and field as interrelated and interpenetrating, so that a change in one necessitates a change in the other. As such, change is often taken for granted in his own writing because it does not require a distinct theorization. Since change is presupposed in this way, it is often not made explicit in his social analyses. It is perhaps understandable, then, if his work has been criticized for being deterministic, in particular with respect to social class. However, Bourdieu strongly and explicitly refutes this claim.

Introduction

Bourdieu's method maps social space in terms of the relative positions occupied by individuals and groupings within it. Field was one particular way of expressing such positions and relations. However, Bourdieu also used a broader concept of “social space” and employed a range of representational methods to offer mappings of such space. This chapter considers a range of visual forms used by Bourdieu and others, including diagrams – some based on geometric correspondences analysis – and photographs. It also offers the reader a practical example of Bourdieusian analysis to show “how to do it” from an initial research construct, through data collection and analysis, to presentation and discussion of outcomes. The aim is to offer further methodological guidance on undertaking a study from a Bourdieusian perspective.

Social space

The phrase “social space” is often used in sociological writing as a generic metaphor to indicate the broad background to the social phenomenon being studied (see Crossley 2005: 306). Bourdieu uses the term “social space” more specifically, when he intends to indicate the set of all possible positions that are available for occupation at any given time or place. Since Bourdieu's theory of practice is a relational one, these possible positions are defined in relation to each other. As he writes, “one ought to be able to recall at every point the whole network of relationships found there” (Bourdieu 1984: 120).

Introduction

Since hysteresis, generational change, dislocation of habitus, social crisis and field restructuring are all terms closely related in Bourdieu's discussion of social phenomena and how they change over time, “Bourdieu and change” could be an alternative title for this chapter. Bourdieu saw that hysteresis was a necessary consequence of his defi- nitions of habitus and field as mutually generating and generated. These interrelations are the focus of this chapter. The chapter is presented in three main sections: first, definition and historical context of hysteresis; secondly, Bourdieu's usage of the concept in his published writing; and, thirdly, some practical applications of the concept are considered. A brief discussion of practical and theoretical implications concludes the chapter.

Bourdieu and change

Bourdieu's definitions of habitus and field have change as a necessary consequence of their condition – a change in one necessitates a change in the other. As such change is often taken for granted in his own writing since it does not require a distinct theorization. Because change is presupposed in this way, it is often not made explicit in Bourdieu's social analyses. It is perhaps understandable, then, if his work has been criticized for being deterministic, in particular with respect to social class. Bourdieu strongly and explicitly refutes this claim. For him, an individual's history is ongoing and the resulting accumulation of symbolic and economic capital which constitute habitus is also continuous, habitus itself is in a state of constant flux. As Bourdieu writes in In Other Words: “Habitus, as a product of social conditionings, and thus of a history (unlike character), is endlessly transformed” (Bourdieu 1994d: 7).

Introduction

Aging involves a progressive decline in the functional reserve of multiple organs and systems, which reduces the stress-coping ability of aged individuals. In this chapter we explore the influence of aging on response to hematopoietic stress and the potential mechanisms by which this response may be impaired.

The peripheral blood counts do not appear significantly reduced in the aged, at least up to age 90, indicating that homeostasis is preserved even in the oldest old, in the absence of stress. In the meantime, incidence and prevalence of diseases that inhibit hematopoiesis, including chronic inflammations, nutritional deficiencies, chronic renal insufficiency, sarcopenia, myelodysplasia, and other hematopoietic malignancies, increase with age. These conditions may be subclinical until revealed by hematopoietic stress, as they prevent the increased production of blood elements required to compensate for accelerated consumption or losses. Even in the absence of specific diseases, hematopoiesis may become progressively exhausted, due to a loss of stem cells and of their self-renewal capacity. This exhaustion appears due to a number of mechanisms, including repeated exposure to anoxia/reoxygenation, epigenetic changes involving loss of DNA-repairing enzymes and of negative cell-cycle regulators, and increased concentration of substances that may inhibit the self-renewal and the differentiation of hematopoietic progenitors.