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This fully revised fourth edition of Constraints on the Waging of War considers the development of the principal rules of international humanitarian law from their origins to the present day. Of particular focus are the rules governing weapons and the legal instruments through which respect for the law can be enforced. Combining theory and actual practice, this book appeals to specialists as well as to students turning to the subject for the first time.
Prohibitions or restrictions on use of conventional weapons
As noted in Section 2.4, the CDDH (1974–7) had not been able to conclude the lawmaking process relating to the use of conventional weapons at the same time as the work on the two Additional Protocols. The Conference did, however, adopt a resolution at its last meeting, recommending that another conference should be convened “not later than 1979” to finish the work on conventional weapons. The new conference should attempt to reach agreement, not only on “prohibitions or restrictions” on the use of specific conventional weapons, but on a review mechanism as well.
This chapter provides an overview of the law of armed conflict as it emerged from the developments described in the previous chapter, up to the Diplomatic Conference of 1974–7. Two topics of general importance are dealt with first: the scope of application of the treaties adopted in this period (Section 3.1), and their relation to military necessity (Section 3.2). These are followed by the main substantive aspects of the law of The Hague and of Geneva, in that order (Sections 3.3 and 3.4). The chapter concludes with a discussion of implementation and sanctions in the event of non-implementation (Section 3.5).
The international humanitarian law of armed conflict, rather than being an end in itself, is a means to an end: the preservation of humanity in the face of the reality of war. That reality confronts us every day; the means remains therefore necessary.
The preceding chapters provide a sketch of the development of the international humanitarian law of warfare and of some of its problems. These problems are more varied and complicated than usually emerges in public debate, with its tendency to take notice of humanitarian law only in the context of given ‘topics of the day’: the potential use of nuclear weapons; the position of guerrilla fighters in wars of national liberation; the fate of the civilian population in contemporary armed conflict; or the wanton attacks on Red Cross or Red Crescent personnel. Important though each of these issues may be, we should not lose sight of the overall picture.
The present chapter starts out with the birth, in the 1860s, of two ‘branches’ of the law of armed conflict: the law of The Hague (Section 2.1) and the law of Geneva (Section 2.2).
Just about a century after those early beginnings, in the 1960s and 1970s, the United Nations began to take an active interest in the promotion and development of the law of armed conflict, under the heading ‘human rights in armed conflict’. Apart from enabling the General Assembly to incorporate the subject under a previously existing agenda item, this marked the increasingly important relationship between the law of armed conflict and human rights law. This ‘current of New York’ is the subject of Section 2.3.
As related towards the end of Chapter 2, the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, or CDDH, on 8 June 1977 adopted the text of two Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. One (Protocol I) is applicable in international armed conflicts; the other (Protocol II), in non-international armed conflicts.
Events such as the armed conflicts in the former Yugoslavia; between Iraq and Iran or Ethiopia and Eritrea; in Afghanistan, Iraq, Sudan, Rwanda, the Congo, Somalia, Sri Lanka and Colombia, remind us day after day of the cruelty of war and the suffering, death and destruction it entails. They also raise an obvious question: is the behaviour of the parties to such armed conflicts subject to any restrictions? The answer is that such restrictions do exist, even though they may not always be crystal clear or completely unequivocal. Confining ourselves to the realm of law (rather than that of morality alone) they are found in such diverse branches as the law of the United Nations Charter, human rights law, environmental law, the law of neutrality and, last but not least, the ‘law of war’ or jus in bello: a body of law specifically designed to ‘constrain the waging of war’.
The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 for the protection of war victims open with an unusual provision: it is the undertaking of the contracting states ‘to respect and to ensure respect for [the Conventions] in all circumstances’. Why reaffirm that contracting states are bound to ‘respect’ their treaty obligations? Does ‘all circumstances’ add anything special to this fundamental rule of the law of treaties? And what about ‘ensure respect’: should that not be regarded as implicit in ‘respect’, in the sense of a positive counterpart to the negative duty not to violate the terms of the Conventions?
I readily admit that common Article 1 was not the first provision of the Conventions to capture my attention: there was, after all, so much to discover in these impressive structures that Article 1 could easily be passed over as an innocuous sort of opening phrase. Two things have changed this. One was the insistence of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) that a State Party to the Conventions is not only itself bound to comply with its obligations under these instruments but is under a legal obligation to make sure that other States Parties do likewise. The more this thesis of the ICRC was forced upon us, the less likely it seemed to me that this could indeed be an international legal obligation upon contracting states.
Colombia, which never deigned to sign the Additional Protocols of 1977, in 1993 acceded to Protocol I on the protection of victims of international armed conflicts, and in 1996 to Protocol II applicable in situations of non-international (or internal) armed conflict. The latter step was the more remarkable in that Colombia for more than four decades was (and is to the present day) the scene of virulent internal armed conflict.
Neither the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects, adopted in Geneva on 10 October 1980, nor the Protocols annexed to it specify in their operative parts the principles on which the prohibitions and restrictions rest. Such principles are, however, found in the preamble to the Convention.
Four of the twelve preambular paragraphs are relevant here. They list: the “general principle of the protection of the civilian population against the effects of hostilities”; the principle “that the right of the parties to an armed conflict to choose methods or means of warfare is not unlimited”; the ban on “the employment in armed conflicts of weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering”; and the fact that it is prohibited “to employ methods or means of warfare which are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, longterm and severe damage to the natural environment.” The fifth paragraph reiterates the well-known Martens clause, in the formulation accepted for Article 1, paragraph 2, of Additional Protocol I of 1977.
Ni la Convention sur l'interdiction ou la limitation de l'emploi de certaines armes classiques qui peuvent çtre considérées comme produisant des effets traumatiques excessifs ou comme frappant sans discrimination, adoptée à Genève le 10 octobre 1990, ni les protocoles y annexés ne mentionnent spécifiquement dans leurs dispositifs les principes sur lesquels reposent les interdictions et les limitations prévues. Cependant, ces principes sont rappelés dans le préambule de la Convention.
Ni en la Convención sobre prohibiciones o restricciones del empleo de ciertas armas convencionales que puedan considerarse excesivamente nocivas o de efectos indiscriminados, aprobada en Ginebra el 10 de octubre de 1980, ni en los protocolos anexos a la misma se especifican, en sus partes dispositivas, los principios en los que se basan las prohibiciones y las restricciones. Pero tales principios figuran en el preámbulo de la Convención.
De los doce párrafos del preámbulo cuatro interesan aquí. Son los siguientes: el «principio general de la protección de la población civil contra los efectos de las hostilidades»; el principio según el cual «el derecho de las partes en un conflicto armado a elegir los métodos o medios de hacer la guerra no es ilimitado»; la prohibición del «empleo, en los conflictos armados, de armas, proyectiles, materiales y métodos de hacer la guerra de naturaleza tal que causen daños superfluos o sufrimientos ìnnecesarios»; y el hecho de que está prohibido «el empleo de métodos o medios de hacer la guerra que hayan sido concebidos para causar, o de los que quepa prever que causen daños extensos, duraderos y graves al medio ambiente natural».
Le 27 juin 1986, la Cour internationale de Justice (CIJ) rendait un arrêt dans l'affaire des activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci. Cette affaire, qui engageait le Nicaragua contre les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, est digne d'attention à divers titres et il en est de même pour l'arrêt qui a été rendu. Je voudrais mettre en exergue deux de ses caractéristiques: l'affaire a trait à une situation de conflit armé et la Croix-Rouge est mentionnée.
S'il est rare que la Cour de La Haye ait à connaître d'une situation réelle de conflit armé, cela est dû au manque d'empressement des Etats à soumettre de telles affaires à sa juridiction. Le fait qu'en l'occurrence la Cour ait pu être saisie du cas résulte davantage d'un accident de procédure que d'une attitude exceptionnellement louable de la part des parties en présence. Comme il paraît improbable que cet exemple soit suivi de beaucoup d'autres, restons-en lâ.