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Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
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Index
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Frontmatter
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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References
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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1 - The community system of alcohol use and alcohol problems
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Summary
Introduction
Joseph Townsend lives in Great Britain in the large metropolitan area of Birmingham. Concerned about the number of street people in his downtown neighborhood who were regularly intoxicated, Joseph organized his neighbors and many local shops to set up a storefront recovery center where alcohol-dependent people could get counseling and where meetings of self-help groups, e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous, could be held. The storefront recovery center was a big success, with many clients coming and going every day. After the center had been operating successfully for six months, Joseph noticed, during his regular walks through his neighborhood, that the number of people intoxicated on the street had not decreased. In fact, there appeared to be many more now than before. “ How could this be,” he wondered, “ after all the work we have done?”
In another community, Silver City, a small multi-ethnic town in New Mexico (USA), Mary and Charles Lopez, parents of two children, 15 and 18 years old, were concerned about the amount of drinking by local young people. They were fearful that their daughter and son might drink, and they were concerned about the risk of harm to their children and others in their community as a result of teenage drinking. Other parents joined them in assisting the local schools to adopt a health curriculum that informed young people about the risks of alcohol and other drugs. The school curriculum was widely and effectively implemented, and was popularly received by the community.
5 - Social Norms Subsystem: community values and social influences that affect drinking
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Summary
Introduction
The Social Norms Subsystem represents the social dynamics that influence rates and patterns of alcohol consumption in the community. The “norm” is a basic concept of social science, referring to informal social rules or proscriptions defining acceptable and unacceptable behavior within any social group, organization, or larger social structure, such as a village, small town, or city.
Norms are reflected in the homogeneity of behavior observable among any people with sufficient social contact and exposure. This homogeneity can exist even across entire societies with sufficient common exposure to language, social values, mass messages, and images. The US as a whole exhibits a notable homogeneity of values, despite regional differences in styles of behavior and values, as subgroups with their own common heritages (and languages) also are influenced by the larger social collectivity. For example, with respect to drinking norms, a three-generation study of Mexican-Americans (Markides, Krause & Mendes de Leon, 1988) showed that acculturation altered this ethnic group's traditional normative drinking patterns.
Drinking norms are social influences and pressures regarding acceptable drinking behavior, which may act either to encourage (permit) or to discourage (restrict) alcohol consumption. Drinking norms are part of a larger collection of norms influencing many types of individual and social behavior (see Pittman & Snyder, 1962; Pittman, 1967; Simpura, 1987; and Room, 1991). Community drinking norms reflect general attitudes about drinking and societal expectations regarding the levels of drinking considered appropriate.
Acknowledgements
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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7 - Social, Economic, and Health Consequences Subsystem:community identification of and responses to alcohol problems
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Summary
Introduction
The use of alcohol can have a wide range of social, economic, and health consequences in a community. Some of these consequences, such as liver cirrhosis or alcohol psychosis and resulting hospitalizations, may result from long-term use of alcohol. Other consequences may result from the heavy use of alcohol on occasions where impairment in judgment, function, or physical skills results in injury or death of the drinker or others, and emergency medical services may be required.
Alcohol increases the risks of all types of injury or violence. For example, the frequency with which drinking and violence towards a spouse co-occur indicates that alcohol increases the risk of spouse abuse. Not all cases of spouse abuse are caused by drinking; however, the acute effects of alcohol may increase violent or victim behavior of either spouse, or violence towards a spouse may be precipitated by family disruption associated with long-term or heavy dependent drinking. Examples of accidents made more likely by alcohol impairment include motor vehicle crashes and drownings.
The Social, Economic, and Health Consequences Subsystem has three functions in the community:
(1) Definition and identification of alcohol-involved problems.
(2) Remedial or preventive response to these problems.
(3) Direction of public attention to these problems.
It is not always obvious what constitutes an alcohol-involved problem for the community. The seemingly trivial case of a hangover from drinking illustrates the subtlety of some alcohol-involved problems. Most experienced drinkers have had hangovers, and hangovers have been the subject of many comedy routines; this drinking-related outcome is not generally considered a community problem.
4 - Formal Regulation and Control Subsystem: rules, administration, and enforcement
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Introduction
The function of the Formal Regulation and Control Subsystem is to place limits on the physical and economic availability of alcoholic beverages. Most societies establish rules and controls governing the sale and availability of alcohol. In industrialized societies, these take the form of formal laws and regulations. In fact, alcohol may be, on average, the most regulated of all legal retail products. Formal regulations typically cover the production, import, wholesale distribution, and retail sales of alcohol. The government may hold a monopoly on wholesale or retail sales of alcohol. If alcohol production and retail sales are in the hands of private corporations and individuals, these activities usually are subject to licensing and regulation.
Physical availability of alcohol may be limited through regulations controlling: the forms in which alcohol can be sold; the types, numbers, densities, and locations of retail outlets; the hours and days of the week retail sales are allowed; the minimum age to purchase or drink alcohol; serving practices; the potential liability of those serving alcohol; and the social accessibility of alcohol. Economic availability of alcohol may be regulated through taxation of alcohol sales, alcohol price restrictions and controls, and restrictions on the promotion and advertising of alcohol.
Formal regulations are publicly codified statements of societal values. Thus, the Formal Regulation and Control Subsystem is influenced by the Social Norms Subsystem, which reflects social expectations related to the use of alcohol and the community's level of concern about alcohol-involved problems.
Contents
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Alcohol and the Community
- A Systems Approach to Prevention
- Harold D. Holder
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An individual's decision to use alcohol and the frequency, quantity and situation of such use are the result of a combination of biological and social factors. Drinking is not only a personal choice, but also a matter of custom and social behaviour, and is influenced by access and economic factors including levels of disposable income and cost of alcoholic beverages. Until prevention efforts cease to focus narrowly on the individual and begin to adopt broader community perspectives on alcohol problems and strategies to reduce them, these efforts will fail. This book, first published in 1998, challenges the current implicit models used in alcohol problem prevention and demonstrates an ecological perspective of the community as a complex adaptive system composed of interacting subsystems, an appreciation and understanding of which offers an alternative approach to the prevention of alcohol dependence and alcohol-related problems.
Series editor's preface
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Summary
Alcohol issues are a cause today for intense public health concern in most countries of the world. That assertion is valid for rich nations whose encounters with drink have long histories, and poorer regions where the adverse consequences of alcohol may begin to threaten national development.
Within the modern Public Health perspective, alcohol, the commodity itself, is an issue of concern as well as the problems which drinking generates. The reason for taking this position is the overwhelming strength of the research evidence showing that the more an individual drinks, the greater the risk of that person sustaining alcohol-related harm. Similarly, the higher the national per capita alcohol consumption, the greater will be the alcohol-related burden of costs and damage for that society.
The Public Health perspective is also illuminated by studies which demonstrate the immense variety in types and degree of the problems which can be caused by drinking. The concerns must be with the sum of small problems as well as with large problems, with harm done to the family or bystander as well as the direct consequences for the drinker themselves, with acute mishaps as well as chronic illness, and with the problems which occur in the social as well as the medical domain. These matters cannot be tidied away by directing our responses solely at ‘ the alcoholic’.
Dr Harold Holder' s analysis brilliantly exemplifies this perspective. While not discounting the background importance of national alcohol policy responses, he offers an analysis at the level of local community.
3 - Retail Sales Subsystem: alcohol availability and promotion
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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- Alcohol and the Community
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Introduction
Alcohol is made available to consumers through the Retail Sales Subsystem. Alcohol may be legally or illegally produced. It is produced and distributed by a beverage industry (which may or may not be located within the community system) and sold in a variety of forms and quantities, through several types of retail outlets. Within the Retail Sales Subsystem, two key factors – retail availability and consumer demand for alcohol – interact to determine the level of retail sales of alcohol in a community, which is equivalent to the overall level of consumption.
In industrialized countries, the Retail Sales Subsystem is affected by the formal licensing and regulation of retail alcohol outlets. Restraints and restrictions on retail availability of alcohol, including zoning and other local regulation of alcohol outlets as businesses, are inputs to the Retail Sales Subsystem from the Formal Regulation and Control Subsystem. Even if, as in non-industrialized communities, alcohol is available through indigenous private production and sale, rather than formally licensed shops or bars and restaurants, such transactions still constitute a Retail Sales Subsystem.
The Retail Sales Subsystem for alcohol is a part of the community's overall retail marketplace. As part of the economic structure of a community, outlets for the sale of alcohol are influenced by the same types of economic factors that influence retail outlets for other non-durable (consumable or disposable) goods, such as food, clothing, motion pictures, cosmetics, and automobiles.
8 - Community-level alcohol problem prevention
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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Summary
Introduction
The goal of prevention is to reduce the future occurrence of alcoholinvolved problems, which (as defined in this book) are the natural products (output) of the community system. How to develop effective long-term interventions or changes in this complex, open, and adaptive system is neither simple nor obvious. As an adaptive system, the community will not be affected by prevention programs or efforts that make no changes in the system's structure or processes. Furthermore, the system will adjust to and compensate for prevention efforts that do alter its natural arrangements. Such community system adjustments hamper the potential long-term effectiveness of any prevention intervention and are the most serious obstacle to cost-effective alcohol problem prevention in the long term.
For example, consider what happens in the community if enforcement against drinking and driving is increased, and, as a result of publicity about increased enforcement, drivers believe their chance of being detected and arrested for driving under the influence (DUI) is now much higher (i.e., perceived risk of arrest increases). If the actual risk of arrest has increased only slightly (so that it is much lower than the new perceived risk), then, over time, drivers will learn that their perceived risk is much too high. As a result, they will naturally return to their prior drinking and driving behavior, and little or no long-term reduction in alcohol-involved crashes will result. Similarly, consider the effects of increasing the retail prices of alcoholic beverages, say by 10%.
6 - Legal Sanctions Subsystem: prohibited uses of alcohol
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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- Book:
- Alcohol and the Community
- Published online:
- 22 September 2009
- Print publication:
- 05 March 1998, pp 97-112
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Summary
Introduction
The Legal Sanctions Subsystem reflects the community's use of police powers to respond to and control alcohol-involved behaviors and events that are defined as illegal. Along with the Formal Control and Regulation Subsystem, the Legal Sanctions Subsystem is also involved in detecting and punishing those who violate specific rules concerning the possession and use of alcohol. The purpose of enforcement is not only to punish those who violate the laws or rules, but also to deter or prevent such behaviors or events through the threat of punishment.
Behaviors and events subject to enforcement within the Legal Sanctions Subsystem can include public intoxication or public drinking, alcoholinvolved violent behavior, illegal sale of alcoholic beverages, drinking in places where it is prohibited (such as parks or beaches), and driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI). This chapter first briefly summarizes enforcement considerations in each of these areas. The rest of the chapter focuses primarily on drinking and driving, which is the dominant concern of this subsystem in many industrialized communities. The discussion of drinking and driving provides a detailed example of how the Legal Sanctions Subsystem functions and interacts with other subsystems in all aspects of enforcement.
Areas of enforcement within the subsystem
A common function of the Legal Sanctions Subsystem is detection and deterrence of public intoxication. Even where alcohol sales and consumption are legal, many communities in industrialized countries have defined intoxication in public view as illegal. As a result, the offense of public intoxication can consume considerable police time and court resources.
2 - Consumption System
- Harold D. Holder, Prevention Research Center, Berkeley, California
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- Book:
- Alcohol and the Community
- Published online:
- 22 September 2009
- Print publication:
- 05 March 1998, pp 29-53
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Summary
Introduction
Alcohol is consumed in most of the world's industrial cultures and in many non-or pre-industrial cultures. Some cultures have formal bans on alcohol, but in many, consumption of alcohol is a part of routine community life. Although the proportion of people who elect to abstain from alcohol varies across communities and cultures, alcohol is likely to be consumed in some form by a significant percentage of the population where it is not forbidden. In a community system, drinking is manifested in the Consumption Sub-system.
Each member of a community can be described according to his or her patterns of drinking (including abstention), characterized by quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption and by rates of intoxication. Across the community as a whole, these individual drinking (or abstinence) patterns in the aggregate form consumption categories or distributions, which make up the Consumption Subsystem. Alcohol use within the community differs by age, gender, marital status, religious preference, and racial or ethnic heritage. Men usually consume more alcohol on average than do women. Youths, young adults, adults, and the elderly exhibit distinct patterns of alcohol use. People from religious groups that prohibit alcohol use (e.g., Muslims, Mormons, or Southern Baptists in the US) consume less alcohol than do people from religious groups with no such proscriptions. Within the US, whites, African-Americans, and Latinos differ in their drinking patterns.
The Consumption Subsystem is dynamic. Over time, people move from one consumption category to another, changing both frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption.