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Index
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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- Languages in Space and Time
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Chapter 2 - Language and Languages
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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- Languages in Space and Time
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- 29 October 2020, pp 9-40
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Summary
While investigating a group of languages, one is interested in formulating aninsightful picture of their internal structure as well as of the relationsbetween the different languages in the group, reflecting the bit complexityand the social complexity aspects discussed briefly in the previous chapter.In order to proceed to a comparison and analysis of the languages, one needsto know how to define the differences between languages and group differentlanguages together in a way that best suits the observed differences. From amore general viewpoint, the picture thus obtained cannot be disentangledfrom the processes underlying the origin and evolution of languages,possibly from a common ancestor. These and other related topics will bediscussed in this part of the book.
Unless one is specifically interested in the comparison between differentscripts, language comparison methods are not applied to written texts but tothe actual spoken languages, by analyzing their phonetic transcriptions intothe IPA, the International Phonetic Alphabet
The transcription of a language into IPA is difficult work, requiring thefield linguists to make a faithful transcription of the spoken language evenup to its smallest phonetic details. In the case of unwritten languages,that is, languages that do not have a standard written form used by thenative speakers, their IPA transcription represents the only existingwritten source.
One of the relevant goals of an analysis of a linguistic database is toprovide a reliable picture of related languages. Some prototypicallinguistic scenarios used to describe language groups are the following:
• Linkage. A linkage of languages is a group oflanguages deriving from a protolanguage that has gradually branchedinto a number of (still) interacting languages. However, despite thecontinuous interactions, such languages keep differentiating moreand more into separate languages. The term ‘linkage’was introduced by Ross in his study of Western Oceanic languages(see Ross [1988]). A typical example of linkage is a group oflanguages born within a dialect continuum. Thelinkage formation process resembles parapatricspeciation in ecology, where species differentiatewhile remaining in contact with each other.
PART TWO - LANGUAGE DYNAMICS
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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- Languages in Space and Time
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- 29 October 2020, pp 95-96
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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- Languages in Space and Time
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Summary
Introduction to Complexity
Complexity theory is a major interdisciplinary paradigm which unifies naturaland social sciences through a combination of quantitative and qualitativemethods applied at various phases of the research, from observations anddata analysis to modeling, simulation, and interpretation of complexphenomena (Anderson, 1972; Ross and Arkin, 2009). In this framework,cognitive and nonlinear stochastic models and effective representationmethods such as complex networks and fractal geometry, represent a part ofthe standard toolbox. In fact, in complexity theory, phenomena emergedynamically from hierarchical, multi-modular systems, produced by bundles ofpossibly stochastic interactions and causalities rather than fromcorrelative determinism.
As far as language and linguistic analysis are concerned, complexity itselfcan be understood from at least two different perspectives. On the one hand,there is ‘constitutional complexity’, or ‘bitcomplexity’, that is, complexity due to inventories of functionalunits or structural features, such as phonemes, morphemes, and lexicalstems. On the other hand, there is ‘(socio-)interactionalcomplexity’, or, in other words, ‘communal complexity’,involving intricate modules of units and features, or networks ofinteractive individuals and aggregates. These different aspects all findtheir natural description in the multiplex paradigm, thatis, through a model system composed of a set of interacting, overlappingnetworks. The unification of the two aforementioned dimensions of complexityrepresents a major challenge and is a focus point of this book.
For more than a decade, a growing interdisciplinary community has applied thetools of complex systems theory and statistical mechanics to the study ofproblems that traditionally belong to the field of linguistics. Nowadays,language dynamics represents a relevant branch of complexity theory. Themodeling of language dynamics has mainly addressed three fundamentaldimensions of language complexity.
(i) Language spread and competition (the dynamics of languageuse in multilingual communities).
(ii) Language evolution (how the structure of languageevolves).
(iii) Language cognition (the way the human brain processeslinguistic knowledge).
While these three dimensions of language complexity closely interact witheach other and should all be taken into account for an exhaustivedescription of language complexity, it is useful, for clarity, to considerthem as separate aspects. In the present book, we mainly address the firsttwo dimensions, discussing language spread and competition models andconsidering language evolution models. However, we will also usesocio-cognitive models of linguistic and cultural change.
Chapter 4 - Historical Glottometry
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
Background
The family tree model (Stammbaumtheorie) is a major approachto the interpretation and visualization of the (historical) relationshipsamong languages. It provides a simple and clear picture of the emergence ofa language family, starting from the single original community speaking theprotolanguage, then gradually splitting up into more and moresubcommunities, finally turning into the observed group of languages.
One of the main limitations of the tree model of language evolution is theunderlying assumption that the protolanguage developsindependently in each branched subcommunity. Such anidealized situation rarely occurs; usually, innovations are born in onecommunity and spread to other adjacent communities. The diffusion ofinnovations across a dialect continuum can result in a patchwork ofintersecting innovations, a scenario that does not fit into the simplepattern of a tree model and a cladistic approach. To overcome thedifficulties of the tree model, the wave theory wasproposed and developed in the framework of historical linguistics (see deSaussure [1915] and Bloomfield [1926]). The wave theory allows thedescription of languages as entities continuously evolving while interactingwith each other. To distinguish between these very different situationsdescribed by a tree model on one hand and wave theory on the other hand, theterm language family was proposed in a sense similar to thegenetic family, that is, as isolated subgroups (Ross, 1988). The termlinkage was also introduced to represent a languageinside an interactive language network (Schmidt, 1872), in which, inprinciple, all languages interact with each other.
Wave Theory
In this section, we focus on historical glottometry, whichwas inspired by the wave theory and introduced in the works of Siva Kalyanand Alexandre François on the languages of Vanuatu, an island nationin the Australian continent (François, 2012). The basic idea of thewave model is the evolution and spreading of innovations, whichFrançois defined as changes shared by all thelanguages of modern speakers (François, 2014). The presence orabsence of innovations creates geographical borders known asisoglosses which define the areas corresponding tolanguages, which, in the spirit of wave theory, usually overlap with eachother.
Chapter 6 - Language Evolution Models
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
All language dynamics models try to describe language change in one way oranother. There is no model that provides an exhaustive description of thedynamics of language, but each model tries to capture some relevant aspects.Any particular partitioning of language dynamics models into variouscategories is mainly a matter of convenience, as will become clear in thefollowing sections. Language change can concern very different features,from morphological and phonological to semiotic and cognitive ones; or itcan be observed as a language shift, a drastic form of language change inwhich a speaker adopts a new language in place of the former language; thetwo languages may not change appreciably during the shift.
Semiotic Dynamics models
Semiotic dynamics models (Castellano et al., 2009) owe theirname to the fact that these models study the change of (the semiotic sideof) a language, which is modeled as a set of couplings between words andobjects (Chandler, 1994, 2007). During the interactions among agents, someword–object couplings can be turned on or removed, leading to theappearance of new languages. Semiotic dynamics models study how a uniquelanguage can emerge within a group of interacting individuals initiallyspeaking different languages (Hurford, 1989; Oliphant and Batali, 1996;Castellano et al., 2009); the focus is on the mechanisms underlying theappearance of a consensus (Baronchelli, 2018). These models study neitherthe morphological changes nor the general cognitive changes, both names andobjects being considered as fixed entities, but how the links between themcan change in time.
The Nowak model
As the first example of a semiotic model, we consider the basic version ofthe Nowak model, which is an individual-based evolutionary language gamesimilar to Hurford's model (not described here, see see Hurford[1989]), which has been used to tackle different questions. The mechanismleading to consensus about a certain language used by a whole group ofspeakers is based on the reproductive success assigned to an individual whohas used a more successful communication strategy; eventually, only goodcommunicators remain in the population; in the long time limit, the bestcommunication strategy in the system is selected.
Bibliography
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Preface
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
This book provides a short and selective overview of some quantitative methods of complexity theory and statistical mechanics used in the analysisof linguistic databases and in the study of language dynamics, meaningforemost the quantitative study of language spread and evolution in terms ofmathematical models. A number of applications have been included in the bookto introduce, illustrate, and explain the theoretical methods considered.Most of the methods discussed are imported from various disciplines, inparticular, the hard sciences, where they are standard tools, or have beendeveloped into their current state from new fields, as in the paradigmaticexample of the theory of complex networks developed withinthe field of complex systems theory.
The general aim of the book is to show the possible advantages in predictingand understanding language processes obtained by integrating the knowledgeprovided by classical linguistic methods, on one hand, with the informationextracted by applying mathematical tools of complexity theory, on the otherhand. The general message that we intend to communicate is not new: theinterdisciplinary interactions described here have already begun atdifferent times and in many ways. These interactions are due in part to thetruly interdisciplinary nature of linguistics and, in particular, to itslogical framework, representing a fertile terrain for the introduction ofnew quantitative methods. We are still in the first stages of a realintegration between linguistics and complex systems and there is still along way ahead, full of challenges and problems to be studied, before wereach our ideal.
The exposition of material from the technical point of view is gradual,starting from basic concepts and models and moving toward more complexfeatures of mathematical modeling and data analysis methods. The structureof the book is designed around some general topics, such as the nature oflanguage groups and some linguistic processes, such as language competitionand language evolution. We have tried to keep theory linked withapplications to real linguistic problems and have avoided technical details,in order to maintain the book at a general or introductory level, suitableboth to researchers and advanced students interested in theinterdisciplinary field of language dynamics.
PART ONE - REVEALING LANGUAGE GROUPS
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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List of Figures
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Chapter 5 - Introduction to Language Dynamics
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
In this chapter, some mathematical models of language dynamics (Wichmann,2008a,b; Schulze et al., 2008; Vogt, 2009; Castellano et al., 2009;Solé et al., 2010) are discussed and illustrated with someapplications. Many language dynamics models have been developed to describe,for example, the evolution of languages, the competition processes betweendifferent linguistic features (considered as fixed entities), or thecognitive dimension of language. Due to limited space, it is not possible toprovide here an exhaustive discussion of language dynamics models and manyimportant pieces of the complete picture of the field are missing. In thefollowing sections, we will discuss a selection of examples with the goal ofproviding at least a general idea of the field and why it represents aframework for further possible developments.
The ultimate goal of mathematical language dynamics models is to provide aquantitative description of language change, that is, of the combineddynamics of evolution, competition, and spreading processes of languages inspace and time and of the consequent diversity and correlations of thelinguistic landscapes, discussed in the first part of the book. Forconvenience, models are classified into different types. Fully evolutionarymodels, in which languages themselves undergo changes, while possiblycompeting with each other, are discussed in Chapter 6. Competition andnatural selection models, which consider the processes taking place on ashorter time scale, and on which language features can be considered fixed,are discussed in Chapter 7; they can in turn be classified into modelsstudying the time scale of language shifts and those focusing on the shortertime scale of language use. We explore the important and interestingcognitive dimension of language only partially, by reviewing a few semioticdynamics models, which are discussed in Section 6.1.
Motivations behind Language Dynamics Modeling
There are different motivations that drive the study of language dynamics,ranging from scientific to social ones. These diverse motivations reveal theinterdisciplinary nature and wide applicability range of languagedynamics.
• Language represents one of the most complex known phenomena.This fuels the interest of scientists who are keen to solvelife's every problem, be it complex or simple.
Conclusion
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
In the present monograph, we have illustrated a set of tools and conceptsrelated to complex systems that are employed in language dynamics. In orderto see how they work and how they relate to linguistics, such tools andconcepts have been applied to specific case studies as well as to moregeneral and abstract simplified models. This application follows the generalpoint of view of complex systems theory, that there are some universalframeworks that can be applied through different fields to describe verydifferent types of complex systems.
Language dynamics is a young field looking for an actual integration amongthe various tools and methods from complex systems, on the one hand, andlinguistics, on the other hand, resulting in a unified and consistentpicture of language change and use. Such a picture is multifold, in that itconcerns (a) the study of the reconstruction of a consistent history oflanguages, (b) the investigations interpreting the complexity of thecurrently observed linguistic landscape, and (c) the forecast of the futureevolution of language groups. The latter point has recently become ofinterest due to the fact that cultural and linguistic diversity are nowrecognized as an invaluable heritage. In fact, the tools of languagedynamics have already been used by various authors to suggest languagepolicies and evaluate the ability of a language to find or create theconditions and a suitable niche, in which to be successful.
The structure and contents of this book reflect the current situation: anintegration of the main methods of investigation has began, but it is stillunderway. The path toward the goals of language dynamics is long andnecessarily passes through a series of applications to real life situationsand historical tests, which are represented by the many linguistic databasesnow available, containing data about the history of languages and thecurrent sociolinguistic structures. We have not mentioned, for reasons ofspace, all the databases coming from social networks or from onlinecontents, which offer ‘big data’ with an unprecedented amountof information and a unique level of fine-grained detail, which are by now arelevant element in linguistic analysis—see for example,Gonçalves and Sánchez (2014); Donoso and Sánchez(2017); Paradowski (2010); Paradowski et al. (2012).
Contents
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Frontmatter
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Chapter 7 - Language Competition Models
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
Introduction to Language Competition
The time scale of competition dynamics on which languages can be described asan analogy of competing biological species is usually shorter than that ofthe fully evolutionary dynamics. However, it is a time scale on whichlanguages can either spread or disappear and therefore is relevant for thedestiny of most of the currently existing languages (Solé et al.,2010). Competition models are technically more simple than evolutionary orcognitive models, but in a linguistic system, one first needs to identifythe competitors and the main competition processes in order to describe themwithin a competition and natural selection paradigm; this may not be astraightforward task. An example of language competition is provided by twolinguistic features competing with each other without undergoing majorchanges, for example, two different ways of pronouncing the same word or twosynonyms referring to the same object/idea. The models considered in thischapter can be categorized either as two-state models, when there aremonolinguals of language X and language Y, or as three-state models withbilinguals, where in addition to X and Y monolinguals, there is also a Zgroup of bilingual speakers. These models provide a simplified descriptionof the adoption of a new language or of the loss of a known language asabrupt changes of the state of a speaker: X→Z or Y→Z(monolingual→bilingual) transitions and the inverse Z→X orZ→Y (bilingual→monolingual) transitions. The overall processX→Z→Y (Y→Z→X) represents a language shift, theprocess whereby a community speaking a certain language X (Y) shifts tospeaking another language Y (X) because of its interaction with anotherlinguistic community.
The paradigm of language shift is extensively studied and still represents ahuge challenge for mathematical modelers. Usually, languages that areconsidered to be more prestigious expand at the expense of other languages.However, there are many possible causes behind a language shift. From ahistorical perspective, some questions have remained unanswered, puzzlinglinguists. These questions can receive at least partial answers withmathematical modeling.
Chapter 3 - Comparison Based on String Metric
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Summary
A string metric is any metric distance between entitieswhich can be associated with a string. String metric-based methods have beendeveloped and used for tackling various problems, from plagiarism detectionand DNA/RNA analysis, image analysis and recognition, to data mining andintegration, and incremental search, to name a few. In this chapter, weconsider some simple examples of metric distances and apply them to somereal examples related to language.
Levenshtein Distance
The most widely known string metric for measuring the difference between twosequences is the Levenshtein distance, also known asedit distance, named after Vladimir Levenshtein, whoconsidered this distance in 1965 (Levenshtein, 1966).
The Levenshtein distance L(a,b) between two given strings a andb, each composed of a set of characters, is defined asthe minimum number of edit operations, including characteraddition, removal, and replacement, needed to turn a intob or vice versa (see e.g. Apostolico and Galil [1997]).Here is an example of how the Levenshtein distance can be used.
Example: Levenshtein distances between three given words. Let usconsider three different locations in the Basque countries, labeled herewith k = 1, 2, 3, where three correspondingly differentdialects of Basque are spoken, and compare the three variants of the sameword, the Basque word for ‘I am’, in these locations. Thewords are a1 = naiz,a2 = nais, anda3 = nas. Comparing thesethree words with each other, we notice the following relations:
• a1 = naiz vs.a2 = nais:naiz → nais by onereplacement operation z →s; thus, L12 =L(naiz, nais)= 1.
• a1 = naiz vs.a3 = nas:naiz → nais →nas by two edit operations: replacementz → s and deletion ofi; so L13 =L(naiz, nas)= 2.
List of Tables
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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Languages in Space and Time
- Models and Methods from Complex Systems Theory
- Marco Patriarca, Els Heinsalu, Jean Leó Leonard
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This cross-disciplinary volume provides an overview of how complexity theory and the tools of statistical mechanics can be applied to linguistic problems to help reveal language groups, and to model the evolution and competition of languages in space and time. Illustrated with a series of case studies and worked examples, it presents an interdisciplinary framework to enable researchers from the mathematical, physical and social sciences to collaborate on linguistic problems. It demonstrates the complexity of linguistic databases and provides a mathematical toolkit for analyzing and extracting useful information from them - helping to conceptualize empirical facts better than a mere ethnographic view. Providing an important bridge to facilitate collaboration between linguists and mathematical modelers, this book will stimulate new ideas and avenues for research, and will form a valuable resource for advanced students and academics working across complex systems, sociolinguistics, and language dynamics.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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