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By the fifth century Latin had become the language of education and been brought to new areas via the expansion of Christianity. The grammars by Donatus (fourth century) and Priscian’s (sixth century) were the canonical textbooks.The Carolingian Renaissance (eighth-ninth century) had linguistic consequences: promotion of scholarship, return to original texts, reform of pronunciation. The twelfth century represents a turning point in the study of language: the aim is not just describing Latin and practical training, but reflecting on the relationship between ‘dialectic’ (logic) and grammar (cf. Peter Helias). This opened the way to a general/formal theory of language, ‘speculative grammar.’ It flourished in the thirteenth century, with the idea that language intervenes both in the knowledge of reality and the theory of the ‘modes of signifying.' The Modistae systematized their predecessors’ work and investigated further the relation of grammar and meaning and the universal properties of language. In the fifteenth century the nominalists, for whom the modes of signifying were unnecessary, attacked their theories.The author notes an interest in pragmatics coming from theologians, rather than grammarians and philosophers. The chapter closes on a review of grammars of vernaculars (Catalan, Provençal, Old French).
Transient ionizing radiation fields have been observed to cause substantial optical loss in undoped LiNbO3 crystals operating at 1.06 microns. This loss is slow to recover and makes the selection of this material for Q-switch applications in radiation environments unfeasible. We have studied the effects of Mg doping on the radiation response of LiNbO3 crystals and have investigated the optical luminescence of doped and undoped samples. Our results indicate a strong correlation between crystal defects, formed primarily during crystal growth, and the radiation-induced optical loss exhibited by these materials. These findings have enabled us to produce radiation-hard LiNbO3 crystals for use in high gamma-field environments.
Liquid-to-crystal nucleation has been studied extensively through dropletexperiments to locate examples of homogeneous nucleation. However, prior tothis work very few examples have been found, which implies that theexperiments have not been able to isolate heterogeneous nucleants in a smallpercentage of the droplets as is required. In this research,electrohydrodynamic atomization (EHD) is used to produce sub-Micron dropletsof pure elements that are largely free of heterogeneous nucleants.
Diffraction patterns of individual EHD-produced droplets are viewed todetermine the fraction of crystalline droplets produced as a function ofdroplet radius. These results are compared to theories for surface andvolume heterogeneous nucleation and for homophase nucleation. It is foundthat Si and Ge nucleate through either homogeneous nucleation or nucleationby homophase impurities. Nucleation results for vanadium and iron were notconclusive.
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