This chapter examines the evolution of monumental civic architecture in Late Antiquity, exploring how urban spaces and public buildings adapted to shifting political, social and economic conditions. Challenging the traditional ‘decline and fall’ narrative, it argues instead for a process of gradual transformation. While some cities in the Western Empire experienced a decline in public building activity, urban centres in the east continued to flourish, with new constructions and adaptations extending well into the Islamic period. In these cities, public buildings such as basilicas, baths and colonnaded streets were frequently repurposed rather than abandoned. Christianity played a crucial role in this shift, as bishops assumed civic responsibilities and redirected resources towards maintaining and adapting urban infrastructure. As a result, late antique cities remained vibrant, with economic and social life persisting despite structural changes. The chapter also highlights the significance of imperial patronage and contributions from the local elite in sustaining urban architecture. By reassessing civic architecture through archaeological and textual evidence, the study presents a more nuanced perspective – one that emphasises urban resilience and transformation rather than outright decline.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of cities in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, focusing on their transformation from classical urban centres to more utilitarian and fortified settlements. It argues that rather than experiencing outright decline, cities in the East adapted to changing political, economic and religious realities. Archaeological evidence demonstrates a marked shift from monumental civic spaces to structures that emphasised military defence, religious identity and practical urban needs. The author discusses key aspects of urban change, including the gradual abandonment of traditional agoras, the decline of monumental temples and the repurposing of public buildings for Christian churches and administrative centres. The chapter also explores the impact of imperial policies on urban planning in reshaping cityscapes through large-scale church construction, fortification efforts and infrastructure projects. The increased militarisation of cities, with the establishment of fortified kastra and urban defences, is another major theme. Regional variations are examined, showing that while some cities, such as Constantinople and Thessaloniki, thrived under imperial patronage, others faced economic stagnation and contraction. The chapter concludes that while Late Antiquity brought profound transformations to urban life, cities in the East remained resilient, adapting to new social and political realities rather than simply collapsing.

Athens and the Aegean were at the centre of the economic life of the Greek world in the late archaic and classical period. Like the other cities of the Aegean, Athens actively exploited its territory, but the specific characteristic of its economy was the presence of the Laurium mines, which gave it an unbeatable natural advantage over the other players. In the Hellenistic period, the Aegean cities were only one of the many players on the international landscape, and they had lost their pre-eminence, although to a certain extent the city of Rhodes succeeded Athens in its role of platform for international trade, and the little island of Delos ended in being for a while the main hub of trans-Mediterranean trade.