This chapter starts by exploring basic questions related to the learning of second language vocabulary such as What is a word? and What does it mean to know a word? It discusses form–meaning mapping as well as a word’s grammatical features and its collocations. The chapter focuses on different types of vocabulary knowledge including receptive knowledge, productive knowledge, breath and depth of knowledge, and knowledge related to multi-word units. The chapter refers to corpora as a way to understand how language functions in the real world. It also discusses different ways of learning new words, that is, incidental and intentional learning. The chapter moves onto issues related to the teaching of vocabulary, starting with explicit instruction involving memorization, and then moving on to more implicit activities (e.g., extensive reading). More specific techniques are reviewed such as glossing, corpus-based instruction, form-focused instruction, and strategy instruction.

This chapter focuses on the learning and teaching of second language pronunciation. It starts by asking basic questions such as: Why is it so hard to sound like a “native speaker”? and Should second language learners even sound like native speakers? The chapter reviews the components of pronunciation including phoneme, segmentals, and suprasegmentals. It then explores the topics of comprehensibility, intelligibility, and accentedness, in order to consider which are most important for second language communication and learning. It argues that native-like pronunciation should not be the goal of pronunciation instruction; rather, the goal should be comprehensibility (i.e., how well a second language learner is understood by a listener). It reviews other issues related to pronunciation learning such as the distinction between receptive and productive knowledge, the role of identity in maintaining a first-language accent, and the role that biology plays in affecting second language pronunciation mastery. Finally, the chapter explores both explicit and implicit methods of pronunciation instruction.

This chapter addresses psychological individual differences that are upmost importance for second language teachers. It answers teachers’ everyday questions such as Why do some students never speak? and Why do some students give up so easily? The chapter begins by explaining some key information to understand learner psychology (e.g., trait-like vs. state-like) and argues that some psychological constructs are susceptible to instruction but some are not. The chapter then discusses multiple individual differences including L2 motivation, willingness to communicate, foreign language anxiety and enjoyment, metacognition, self-regulated learning, mindset, interaction mindset, and learner beliefs. Throughout the chapter, pedagogical recommendations for maximizing learner psychology for second language learning are shared. In addition to learner psychology, the chapter discusses teacher psychology (e.g., teacher cognition) and how it influences the success of second language teaching.

This chapter discusses the necessary components of second language acquisition, that is, input, interaction, and output. While all language learning theories support the importance of input (written and spoken), they diverge in ways which input is connected to second language acquisition. The chapter then examines some of the second language acquisition theories, such as the interaction hypothesis, the noticing hypothesis, the cognitive-interactionist approach, the output hypothesis, and sociocultural theory, all of which explains how interaction leads to second language acquisition. The chapter moves onto specific pedagogical frameworks that support interaction, including communicative language teaching and task-based language teaching. Finally, the chapter delves into the role that output plays by discussing its functions for second language acquisition.

This chapter discusses a language component that has not received sufficient research attention, that is, pragmatics. The chapter answers socially oriented questions such as How can I make this request politely? and What’s the best way to address this person? The chapter explains how pragmatics knowledge helps learners be aware of the requirements of the larger social context surrounding the language, and understand which grammatical and lexical forms are appropriate and helpful in different social contexts. Different pragmatic knowledge is discussed, that is, sociopragmatics (i.e., knowledge about the context) and pragmalinguistics (i.e., knowledge about specific linguistic forms). In addition, the chapter discusses speech acts, such as requests and compliments, which are used to achieve goals in our daily life by using language appropriately and effectively. The chapter then explains how pragmatics is embedded in our society by discussing illocutionary force and intercultural communicative competence. Finally, the chapter explores different ways of teaching pragmatics.

This final chapter revisits all the issues discussed in the textbook in light of their applicability to the real classroom, that is, the relationship between research and practice. It argues for the importance of considering the usefulness of research if and when a researcher hopes to influence classroom teaching via their research. The chapter begins with a description as to how research in general is connected to our daily lives (e.g., medicine, engineering, education). It then overviews the research examining the impact of research on educational practices including second language teaching. Practical and epistemological obstacles to bridging the research–practice gap from practitioners’ and researchers’ sides are discussed. The chapter proposes a variety of actions that practitioners and researchers can take in order to foster a bidirectional, constructive, productive, equitable, and mutually beneficial relationship. The chapter ends with a series of activities designed to ensure the learning outcomes from the textbook.

This chapter discusses different ways that grammar has been viewed, and answers questions such as: Is there always just one grammatical form that’s correct? and How do linguists and lay people think about grammar? The chapter reviews different ways of understanding and investigating grammar learning such as pedagogical grammar, systemic functional linguistics, contrastive analysis, CALF (complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency), language-related episodes, and languaging. The chapter then explores several issues that are specific to grammar learning, such as rule-learning and developmental stages. In particular, it discusses processability theory, teachability theory, and communicative competence. The chapter continues by examining possible answers to the question What’s the best way to teach grammar? The chapter includes the traditional, explicit approach to grammar instruction, and continues with other approaches that are more communicative. Different approaches include proactive and reactive grammar teaching, isolated and integrated form-focused instruction, focused and unfocused tasks, and concept-based instruction.

This chapter examines second language learning and teaching from a skills perspective, that is, reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The chapter first explains the differences among the four skills (e.g., receptive vs. productive; the necessity of formal instruction). Then, the chapter dissects each skill. As for reading and writing, the chapter discusses the necessity of formal instruction, and how the two skills are developed cognitively. The chapter also distinguishes writing-to-learn-language and learning-to-write. In terms of listening, the chapter explains different ways of processing incoming information (i.e., parsing). In relation to speaking, the chapter discusses differences between monologues or dialogues and the influence that time pressure has on second language production. By drawing on the previous chapters focusing on specific language components, the chapter ends with pedagogical recommendations for teaching the academic skills (e.g., how to target and sequence different skills).

This chapter discusses cognitive individual differences that affect learning processes and outcomes of second language. It answers broad questions such as Why do some learners seem to have such an easy time learning a second language? and Why do some learners sound like a first-language speaker but others don’t? The chapter examines how our cognitive abilities influence our learning, and how we might be able to improve our learning even if we have lower cognitive skills in some areas. Specific individual differences include general intelligence, working memory, and language learning aptitude (phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, rote memorization). The chapter then examines how cognitive individual differences mediate the impact of second language instruction, that is, aptitude–treatment interaction. The chapter includes less-investigated individual differences as well, such as neurodiversity, autism, ADHD, and dyslexia. The chapter concludes with learning strategies and pedagogical recommendations that help counter the negative impacts that cognitive individual differences have on second language learning.

This chapter focuses on social individual differences in relation to second language learning. It explores how the social, cultural, and political context that a learner is situated in affects their success of second language learning. The chapter begins by explaining how society and social interaction that second language learners encounter influence the access they have to second language education. This includes the differences between foreign vs. second language learning contexts. It then focuses on social identity theory, acculturation theory relevant to immigrant learners, and transdisciplinary framework (by Douglas Fir Group). The chapter covers other socially constructed individual differences related to intersectionality, diversity–equity–inclusion (DEI), and heritage language learning. The chapter also addresses socially constructed biases related to race and ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, and LGBTQ+. The chapter ends with a series of pedagogical recommendations that mitigate the impacts of socially constructed biases on second language learning in the classroom.

This chapter focuses on instructed second language acquisition research that examines second language learning specifically in instructional contexts, broadly construed (e.g., classrooms, online learning, self-study). The scope of the research field is discussed by distinguishing it from broader second language acquisition research. In essence, the chapter addresses the primary question that researchers and teachers are interested in: Can instruction help learners develop their second language proficiency? The chapter then answers the follow-up question which is: Which types of instruction are more or less helpful? In answering this question, the chapter considers the goals that learners and other stakeholders, such as teachers and parents, have for their second language development. It discusses different types of second language knowledge (implicit and explicit knowledge) as the goal of second language instruction. Finally, the chapter explores pedagogical issues and ends by considering a taxonomy that describes various approaches and methodologies to second language teaching.