The bones of the Neandertal shoulder are distinguished from those of most living humans by (among other things) their long and gracile clavicles and their broad scapulae with narrow glenoid fossae and dorsal sulci on their axillary borders. The adaptive and evolutionary significance of interspecific variation in shoulder morphology, however, is unclear. Some of the features that differentiate the shoulders of Neandertals and modern humans, such as the long clavicles of Neandertals, may reflect overall differences in somatic bauplan between species, in the context of morphological integration of the thorax, shoulder, and upper limb. Other features, such as the shape of the scapular glenoid fossa, may contain information about interspecific differences in habitual upper limb use. Resolving among different possible explanations of observed patterns of variation is central to efforts to understand the behavior and biology of the Neandertals.

This chapter provides a summary of longstanding and updated research for the accurate diagnosis of fractures of the clavicle, sternum and scapula in the setting of suspected physical abuse of infants and young children. Findings key to diagnosing fractures by radiographic skeletal survey, computed tomography, ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging are demonstrated with numerous representative examples. A section for each of these anatomical regions includes a detailed review of anatomy and injury mechanisms in addition to characteristic imaging features. Considerations for differential diagnosis and pitfalls in interpretation are presented specific to each anatomic area. Attention to imaging technique and careful evaluation of findings are emphasized to promote proper diagnosis.

In this chapter we discuss the osteology of the primate forelimb and pectoral girdle from a developmental perspective. The embryonic period of limb development is briefly described. This region in newborn hominoids (apes and humans) is discussed based on the literature and illustrated based on museum specimens. Subsequently, the forelimb skeleton of newborn tarsiers, Old World monkeys, New World monkeys, and strepsirrhines (lemurs and lorises) is described. At birth, the acromion process remains unossified in all primates but the primary center of the corocoid process is ossified in most primates. Haplorrhines generally exhibit better ossified forelimbs (especially at the wrist) than strepsirrhines. Ossification of the forelimb skeleton is most advanced in Old World monkeys and Hylobates compared to all other extant primates except Tarsius. However, ossification rapidly picks up pace postnatally in at least some strepsirrhines (e.g., galagids).