¹ This article draws on the author’s previous writings about the UN climate change regime, including: A Tale of Two Architectures: The Once and Future UN Climate Change Regime, 43 Ariz. St. L. J. 697 (2011); The Durban Platform Negotiations: Goals and Options (Harvard Project on Climate Agreements, July 2012) [hereinafter Bodansky, Durban Platform Negotiations]; The Durban Platform: Issues and Options for a 2015 Agreement (Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, Dec. 2012); and Legally-Binding vs. Non-Legally Binding Instruments, in Towards a Workable and Effective Climate Regime, at 155 (Scott Barrett, Carlo Carraro & Jaime de Melo eds., 2015).

² Paris Agreement (Dec. 13, 2015), in UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Twenty-First Session [hereinafter COP Report and session number], Addendum, at 21, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1 (Jan. 29, 2016) [hereinafter Paris Agreement]. The Agreement is annexed to Decision 1/CP21 of the Conference of the Parties, infra note 13. UNFCCC documents cited herein are available at the Convention’s website, http://unfccc.int/.

³ Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 11, 1997, 2303 UNTS 162 [hereinafter Kyoto Protocol].

⁴ Tiffany Germain, Kristen Ellingboe & Kiley Kroh, The Anti-Science Climate Denier Caucus: 114th Congress Edition, Climate Progress (Jan. 8, 2015), at http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2015/01/08/3608427/climate-denier-caucus-114th-congress/.

⁵ Richard Martin, India’s Energy Crisis, MIT Technology Review (Oct. 7, 2015), at https://www.technologyreview.com/s/542091/indias-energy-crisis/.

⁶ Lazarus, Richard J., Super Wicked Problems and Climate Change: Restraining the Present to Liberate the Future, 94 Cornell L. Rev. 1153 (2009)Google Scholar.

⁷ David Roberts, The Conceptual Breakthrough Behind the Paris Climate Treaty, VOX (Dec. 15, 2015), at http://www.vox.com/2015/12/15/10172238/paris-climate-treaty-conceptual-breakthrough.

⁸ Joby Warrick & Chris Mooney, 196 Countries Approve Historic Climate Agreement, Wash. Post (Dec. 12, 2015), at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/12/12/proposed-historic-climate-pact-nears-final-vote/.

⁹ Coral Davenport, Nations Approve Landmark Climate Accord in Paris, N.Y. Times, Dec. 13, 2015, at A1.

¹⁰ Fiona Harvey, Paris Climate Change Agreement: The World’s Greatest Diplomatic Success, Guardian (Dec. 14, 2015), at http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/13/paris-climate-deal-cop-diplomacy-developing-united-nations.

¹¹ Thomas L. Friedman, Paris Climate Accord Is a Big, Big Deal, N.Y. Times, Dec. 16, 2015, at A35.

¹² See Bodansky, Daniel, The Copenhagen Climate Change Conference: A Postmortem, 104 AJIL 230 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ In the conference decision adopting the Paris Agreement, the parties themselves acknowledged that the intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) submitted prior to the Paris Conference are insufficient. Adoption of the Paris Agreement, Decision 1/CP.21, in COP Report No. 21, Addendum, at 2, UN Doc. FCCC/ CP/2015/10/Add.1 (Jan. 29, 2016) [hereinafter Paris Decision].

¹⁴ According to Climate Action Tracker, full implementation of the INDCs submitted as of December 15, 2015, would put the world on a pathway to 2.4 –2.7 degrees Celsius. Effect of Current Pledges and Policies on Global Temperature, Climate Action Tracker, at http://climateactiontracker.org/global.html (last visited Mar. 15, 2016).

¹⁵ Copenhagen Accord (Dec 18, 2009), in COP Report No. 15, Decision 2/CP.15, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2009/ 11/Add.1, at 4 (March 30, 2010) [hereinafter Copenhagen Accord].

¹⁶ Climate Action Tracker, supra note 14. For a listing of the INDCs submitted, see INDCs as Communicated by Parties, UNFCCC at http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx (last visited Mar. 15, 2016).

¹⁷ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, May 9, 1992, S. Treaty Doc No. 102–38 (1992), 1771 UNTS 107 [hereinafter UNFCCC].

¹⁸ Louis Brandeis, Other People’s Money and How the Bankers Use It 92 (1914).

¹⁹ At the UN signing ceremony on April 22, 2016, 175 countries signed the Paris Agreement, apparently the most ever to sign an international treaty on a single day. For a listing of signatories, see http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/04/parisagreementsingatures/. Only Nicaragua has voiced objections to the Agreement, both at the closing plenary at COP-21 and at the signing ceremony. See Statement by Paul Oquist Kelley, Minister, Private Secretary for National Policies to the President of Nicaragua, at the High-Level Signature Ceremony (Apr. 22, 2016), at http://webtv.un.org/search/paul-oquist-kelley-nicargua-high-level-signature-ceremony-for-the-paris-agreement-national-statements/4858083079001?term=Nicaragua.

²⁰ Paris Decision, supra note 13.

²¹ See infra Part V for a discussion of these parallel initiatives.

²² See, e.g., European Commission, Winning the Battle Against Climate Change, COM(2005) 35 final (Feb. 9, 2005).

²³ Consideration of Commitments for Subsequent Periods for Parties Included in Annex I to the Convention Under Article 3, Paragraph 9, of the Kyoto Protocol, Decision 1/CMP.1 (Dec. 9–10, 2005), in Kyoto Protocol Meeting of the Parties Report No. 1, UN Doc. FCCC/KP/CMP/2005/8/Add.1 (Mar. 30, 2006).

²⁴ Bali Action Plan, Decision 1/CP.13 (Dec.14–15, 2007), in COP Report No. 13, Addendum, at 3, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1 (reissued March 14, 2008).

²⁵ See Bodansky, supra note 12.

²⁶ Id. at 239–40.

²⁷ Cancún Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action under the Convention, Dec. 1/CP.16 (Dec. 10–11, 2010), in COP Report No. 16, Addendum, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 (March 15, 2011) [hereinafter Cancun Agreements].

²⁸ Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, Decision 1/CP.17 (Dec. 11, 2011), in COP Report No. 17, Addendum, at 2, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1 (March 15, 2012) [hereinafter Durban Platform].

²⁹ Bodansky, Durban Platform Negotiations, supra note 1.

³⁰ Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, Dec. 8, 2012, in Kyoto Protocol Meeting of the Parties Report No. 8, UN Doc. FCCC/KP/CMP/2012/13/Add.1 (Feb. 28, 2013).

³¹ Durban Platform, supra note 28, para. 2.

³² Further Advancing the Durban Platform, Dec.1/CP.19(Nov.23, 2013), in COP Report No. 19, Addendum, at 3, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1 (Jan. 31, 2014) [hereinafter Warsaw Decision].

³³ Lima Call for Climate Action, Dec. 1/CP.20 (Dec. 14, 2014), in COP Report No. 20, Addendum, at 2, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2014/10/Add.1 (Feb. 2, 2015) [hereinafter Lima Call for Climate Action].

³⁴ White House Press Release, U.S.–China Joint Announcement on Climate Change (Nov.12, 2014), at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/11/11/us-china-joint-announcement-climate-change.

³⁵ See Kristina Daugirdas & Julian Davis Mortenson, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 110 AJIL 374, 375 notes 8–9 and accompanying text (2016).

³⁶ White House Press Release, U.S.-China Joint Presidential Statement on Climate Change (Sept. 25, 2015), at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/09/25/us-china-joint-presidential-statement-climate-change.

³⁷ Negotiating Text, in UNFCCC, Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, UN Doc. FCCC/ADP/2015/1 (Feb. 25, 2015).

³⁸ Draft Paris Outcome: Revised Draft Conclusions Proposed by the Co-Chairs, Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, Addendum, UN Doc. FCCC/ADP/2015/L.6/Rev.1 (Dec. 5, 2015).

³⁹ At COP-17 in Durban, the South African presidency introduced the concept of an Indaba—a closed, open-ended meeting of parties, with limited seating, at which important decisions would be made. Proceedings, in COP Report No. 17, at 11, para. 35, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/9 (Mar. 15, 2012).

⁴⁰ For example, the text distributed in the middle of the final week had only about fifty square brackets, as compared to the nine hundred brackets in the text forwarded by the ADP to ministers at the beginning of the week. For a tracking of brackets in the successive negotiating drafts, see Paris Agreement. ORG, at https://parisagreement.org (last visited Apr. 15, 2016).

⁴¹ See Daugirdas & Mortenson, supra note 35, at 381, notes 66–72 and accompanying text.

⁴² See Daniel Bodansky, The Legal Character of the Paris Agreement, Rev. Eur., Comp. & Int’l Envtl. L. (forthcoming 2016).

⁴³ G.A. Res. 45/212, Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind, GAOR Supp. No. 49A, UN Doc. A/45/49, at 147 (Dec. 21, 1990).

⁴⁴ UNFCCC, supra note 17, Art. 4.2(b) (requiring parties to communicate policies and measures “with the aim of returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels”).

⁴⁵ The Berlin Mandate, Dec.1/CP.1, pmbl.(Apr.7, 1995), in COP Report No.1, Addendum, UN Doc.FCCC/ CP/1995/7/Add.1 (June 6, 1995) (calling for negotiation of “a protocol or another legal instrument”) [hereinafter Berlin Mandate].

⁴⁶ Id., para. 2(a).

⁴⁷ Geneva Ministerial Declaration (July 18, 1996), in COP Report No. 2, Addendum, Annex, at 71, 73, para. 8, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/1995/15/Add.1 (Oct. 29, 1996) (calling for negotiation of commitments for AnnexI parties regarding “quantified legally-binding objectives for emissions limitations and significant overall reductions within specified time frames”). As with the Copenhagen Accord, the COP “took note” of the Geneva Declaration, rather than formally adopting it. Id. at 70.

⁴⁸ Durban Platform, supra note 28, para. 2.

⁴⁹ Indian Submission to the ADP Work Plan, para.7, UN Doc. FCCC/ADP/2012/Misc.3 (April 30, 2012); see also Rajamani, Lavanya, The Durban Platform for Enhanced Action and the Future of the Climate Regime, 61 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 501, 506–07 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁰ Negotiating Text, supra note 37, paras. 215–24.

⁵¹ E.g., Anne-Marie Slaughter, The Paris Approach to Global Governance, Project Syndicate (Dec. 28, 2015), at https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/paris-agreement-model-for-global-governance-by-anne-marie-slaughter-2015-12.

⁵² The term “treaty” has a narrower meaning in U.S. constitutional law than in international law, referring to international agreements that are submitted to the Senate for advice and consent to ratification, pursuant to Article II of the Constitution. U.S. Const. Art. II, § 2.

⁵³ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Arts. 20–29.

⁵⁴ Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 2(1)(a), May 23, 1969, 1155 UNTS 331 (defining treaty as “an international agreement concluded between states in written form and governed by international law, . . . what ever its particular designation”).

⁵⁵ The fact that the title “Paris Implementing Agreement” was proposed in the ADP and apparently rejected undercuts Annalisa Savaresi’s argument that the Paris Agreement can be regarded as an implementing agreement. Annalisa Savaresi, The Paris Agreement – A Rejoinder, EJIL:TALK! (Feb. 16, 2016), at http://www.ejiltalk.org/the-paris-agreement-a-rejoinder/.

⁵⁶ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Arts. 9.8, 16–19.

⁵⁷ Daniel Bodansky, Legal Options for U.S. Acceptance of a New Climate Agreement 14 (Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, May 2015), at http://www.c2es.org/docUploads/legal-options-us-acceptance-new-climate-change-agreement.pdf.

⁵⁸ See Daugirdas & Mortenson, supra note 35, at 382, notes 67–72 and accompanying text.

⁵⁹ Warsaw Decision, supra note 32, para. 2(b).

⁶⁰ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.2.

⁶¹ On differentiation, see generally Lavanya Rajamani, Differential Treatment in International Environmental Law (2006).

⁶² Compare UNFCCC, Article 4.1 (establishing common obligations) with Articles 4.2–4.4 (establishing differentiated obligations for Annex Iand Annex II parties). In addition to Annex I and II, the UNFCCC also differentiates other categories of countries, including economies intransition (Article 4.6), small island states (Article 4.8(a)), and least developed countries (Article 4.9).

⁶³ Id. Art. 4.2(f).

⁶⁴ Berlin Mandate, supra note 45, para. 2(b).

⁶⁵ Joanna Depledge, Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article Textual History, UNFCCC Technical Paper, UN Doc. FCCC/TP/2000/2, at 102–05 (Nov. 25, 2000).

⁶⁶ Zhu Liu, China’s Carbon Emissions Report 2015, at 2 (Harvard Kennedy School, May 2015), at http://belf-ercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/carbon-emissions-report-2015-final.pdf.

⁶⁷ Copenhagen Accord, supra note 15, para. 5. See generally Bodansky, supra note 12, at 240.

⁶⁸ Rajamani, supra note 49, at 502.

⁶⁹ US–China Joint Announcement, supra note 34.

⁷⁰ Lima Call for Climate Action, supra note 33.

⁷¹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, pmbl., para. 3.

⁷² Id. Arts. 4.2, 4.6, 4.8, 4.9, 4.13.

⁷³ Id. Arts. 13.1, 13.2.

⁷⁴ Id. Arts. 4.5 (support for developing countries to implement mitigation article), 6.6 (share of proceeds from new sustainable development mechanism for developing countries), 7.6 (recognizing the importance of support for adaptation), 7.13 (support for adaptation for developing countries), 9 (finance), 10 (technology), 11 (capacity building), 13.14 (support for developing countries for implementation), 13.15 (support to build transparency-related capacity of developing countries).

⁷⁵ Id. Arts. 4.1 (peaking will take longer for developing countries), 4.4 (recommending that developed countries “continue taking the lead by undertaking economy-wide absolute emission reduction targets,” while only encouraging developing countries “to move over time towards economy-wide emission reduction or limitation targets in light of different national circumstances.”).

⁷⁶ U.S. Climate Action Network, Who’s on Board with the Copenhagen Accord?, at http://www.usclimatenetwork.org/policy/copenhagen-accord-commitments (last visited Mar. 15, 2016).

⁷⁷ Durban Platform, supra note 28, pmbl., para. 3.

⁷⁸ Warsaw Decision, supra note 32.

⁷⁹ Id., para. 2(b).

⁸⁰ Lima Call for Climate Action, supra note 33, para. 14.

⁸¹ Rajamani, Lavanya, Ambition and Differentiation in the 2015 Paris Agreement: Interpretive Possibilities and Underlying Politics, 65 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 493 (2016)Google Scholar (the “friends of rules” group included South Africa, the European Union, the United States, Switzerland, New Zealand, Australia, and others, as well as the Singaporean facilitator).

⁸² Paris Agreement, supra note 2.

⁸³ Paris Decision, supra note 13.

⁸⁴ Id., paras. 22–104.

⁸⁵ Id., paras. 5–11.

⁸⁶ Id., paras. 12–21.

⁸⁷ Id., paras. 105–32.

⁸⁸ Id., paras. 133–36.

⁸⁹ UNFCCC, supra note 17, Art. 2.

⁹⁰ Copenhagen Accord, supra note 15, paras. 1–2.

⁹¹ Cancún Agreements, supra note 27, para. 4.

⁹² Victor, David G. & Kennel, Charles F., Ditch the 2°C Warming Goal, 514 Nature 30, 30–31 (2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Victor, David G., Why Paris Worked: A Different Approach to Climate Diplomacy, Environment 360 (Dec. 15, 2015), at http://e360.yale.edu/feature/why_paris_worked_a_different_approach_to_climate_diplomacy/2940/ Google Scholar (characterizing 1.5 degree goal as “ridiculous”); Michael Le Page, Paris Deal Is Agreed—But Is It Really Good Enough?, New Scientist (Dec. 12, 2015) at https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28663-paris-climate-deal-is-agreed-but-is-it-really-good-enough/ (quoting Michael Grubb that “actually delivering 1.5 degrees C is simply incompatible with democracy”).

⁹³ Global Temperatures Set to Reach 1°C Marker for First Time, United Kingdom Met Office (Nov. 9, 2015) at http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/news/release/archive/2015/one-degree.

⁹⁴ Scenarios for achieving the below-2 degree Celsius temperature goal all rely on using carbon dioxide removal techniques in the second half of the century, such as bioenergy and carbon capture and storage (BECCS). See Tollefson, Jeff, The 2°C Dream, 527 Nature 436, 437 (2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁵ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 17.

⁹⁶ As one observer in Paris reportedly said, “They may as well agree that all fairies shall ride unicorns too.” Jeff Goodell, Will the Paris Climate Deal Save the World?, Rolling Stone (Jan. 13, 2016), at http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/will-the-paris-climate-deal-save-the-world-20160113?page=2.

⁹⁷ See generally Sunstein, Cass, On the Expressive Function of Law, 144 U. Penn. L. Rev. 2021 (1996)Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 2.

⁹⁹ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 21.

¹⁰⁰ White House Press Release, G-7 Leaders’ Declaration, Schloss Elmau, Germany (June 8, 2015), at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/06/08/g-7-leaders-declaration.

¹⁰¹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.1.

¹⁰² Given the strong opposition by many states to inclusion of an “obligation to achieve,” NDCs cannot be considered unilaterally binding acts, contrary to a suggestion by Jorge Vinuales, The Paris Climate Agreement: An Initial Examination, Part II, EJIL: TALK! (Feb. 8, 2016), at http://www.ejiltalk.org/the-paris-climate-agreement-an-ini-tial-examination-part-ii-of-iii/.

¹⁰³ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.2.

¹⁰⁴ Id. Art. 4.4. This was the provision at issue on the final day, concerning “shall” versus “should.” See supra Part II, n.41 and accompanying text. It reflects a Brazilian “concentric circles” proposal during the negotiations. See Views of Brazil on the Elements of a New Agreement under the Convention Applicable to All Parties, ADP Submission (Nov. 6, 2014), at http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/Lists/OSPSubmissionUpload/73_99_130602104651393682-BRAZIL%20ADP%20Elements.pdf.

¹⁰⁵ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.5.

¹⁰⁶ Id. Art. 4.6.

¹⁰⁷ Warsaw Decision, supra note 32, para. 2(b). See supra note 79 and accompanying text.

¹⁰⁸ Lima Call for Climate Action, supra note 33, para. 14.

¹⁰⁹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.8.

¹¹⁰ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 27.

¹¹¹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.13.

¹¹² Id. Art. 4.8.

¹¹³ Id. Art. 4.10.

¹¹⁴ Id. Art. 4.13.

¹¹⁵ Id. Art. 14.2.

¹¹⁶ Id. Art. 14.1.

¹¹⁷ Id. Art. 4.9.

¹¹⁸ Id. Art. 4.3. The expectation of “progression” appears stronger than the “no-backsliding” principle that some proposed during the negotiations, because it implies that parties will advance rather than merely not retreat. It could be satisfied through changes to a contribution’s stringency, scope, or type.

¹¹⁹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.19.

¹²⁰ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 20.

¹²¹ Id., paras. 23, 24.

¹²² Id., para. 35.

¹²³ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 14.2

¹²⁴ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 25.

¹²⁵ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 4.9.

¹²⁶ International Carbon Action Partnership(ICAP), Emissions Trading Worldwide: Status Report 2016, at 25 (2016) (sixty-four INDCs said they planned to use markets, and twenty-five said they were considering using markets).

¹²⁷ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 6.8.

¹²⁸ See Daniel Bodansky, Seth A. Hoedl, Gilbert E. Metcalf & Robert N. Stavins, Facilitating Linkage of Climate Policies Through the Paris Outcome, Climate Policy (2015).

¹²⁹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 6.7; Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 37(f).

¹³⁰ Cancún Agreements, supra note 27, paras. 13–14.

¹³¹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 7.9.

¹³² Id. Art. 7.2.

¹³³ Id. Art. 7.3.

¹³⁴ Id. Art. 7.6.

¹³⁵ Id. Art. 7.7

¹³⁶ Id. Art. 7.10.

¹³⁷ See Submission by Swaziland on behalf of the African Group on Adaptation in the 2015 Agreement, ADP Submission (Oct. 8, 2013), at http://unfccc.int/files/documentation/submissions_from_parties/adp/application/pdf/adp_african_group_workstream_1_adaptation_20131008.pdf.

¹³⁸ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 7.1.

¹³⁹ Id. Art. 14.1.

¹⁴⁰ Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts, Dec. 2/CP.19 (Nov. 23, 2013), in COP Report No. 19, supra note 32, at 6.

¹⁴¹ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 51.

¹⁴² See Daugirdas & Mortenson, supra note 35, at ____, notes 30–32 and accompanying text.

¹⁴³ UNFCCC, supra note 17, Arts. 4.3, 4.4.

¹⁴⁴ Copenhagen Accord, supra note 15, para. 8.

¹⁴⁵ OECD, Climate Finance IN 2013–2014 and the USD 100 Billion Goal (2015), available at http://www.oecd.org/environment/cc/OECD-CPI-Climate-Finance-Report.pdf.

¹⁴⁶ Ministry Of Finance, Government Of India, Climate Change Finance, Analysis of a Recent OECD Report, at 2–5 (Nov. 27, 2015).

¹⁴⁷ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 9.3.

¹⁴⁸ Id. Art. 9.2

¹⁴⁹ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 53.

¹⁵⁰ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 9.4.

¹⁵¹ See generally Harro Van Asselt, Håkon Sælen & Pieter Pauw, Assessment and Review Under a 2015 Climate Change Agreement (2015).

¹⁵² See Commitment and Compliance: The Role of Nonbinding Norms in the International Legal System (Shelton, Dinah, ed., 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The Implementation and Effectiveness of international Environmental Commitments: Theory and Practice (Victor, David, Raustiala, Kal & Skolnikoff, Eugene B. eds., 1998)Google Scholar.

¹⁵³ Cancún Agreements, supra note 27, paras. 44, 46(d), 63, 66.

¹⁵⁴ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 13.1.

¹⁵⁵ Id. Art. 13.2.

¹⁵⁶ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 84.

¹⁵⁷ See id., paras. 90 (requiring reporting “no less frequently than on a biennial basis”), 92(e) (noting need to ensure that parties maintain at least their current frequency of reporting, which for developed country GHG inventories is annually).

¹⁵⁸ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 13.7. The accompanying COP decision gives greater specificity to the term, “regularly,” by providing that all parties, except for least developed and small island states, shall report on at least a biennial basis. Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 90.

¹⁵⁹ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Arts. 13.11, 13.12.

¹⁶⁰ Id. Art. 13.11.

¹⁶¹ Id. Art. 13.8.

¹⁶² Id. Art. 13.9.

¹⁶³ Id. Art. 13.10.

¹⁶⁴ Id. Art. 13.11.

¹⁶⁵ Id. Art. 13.3.

¹⁶⁶ Id. Art. 13.4.

¹⁶⁷ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 89.

¹⁶⁸ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 13.13.

¹⁶⁹ Id. Art. 15.2.

¹⁷⁰ Id. Art. 15.3.

¹⁷¹ Id. Art. 13.3.

¹⁷² Id. Art. 15.3.

¹⁷³ See Off. of the High Comm’r for H.R., Understanding Human Rights and Climate Change: Submission of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights to the 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Nov. 26, 2015).

¹⁷⁴ Cancún Agreements, supra note 27, para. 8.

¹⁷⁵ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, pmbl., para. 7.

¹⁷⁶ Id. Art. 20.

¹⁷⁷ Id. Art. 21. The penultimate version of the negotiating text had also included bracketed language providing that the Agreement would not enter into force prior to 2020, but this language somewhat mysteriously dropped out of the final text, raising the possibility of early entry into force, before many countries have ratified. See UNFCCC Legal Aff. Programme, Information Note: Entry into Force of the Paris Agreement: Legal Requirements and Implications (Apr. 6, 2016).

¹⁷⁸ Paris Agreement, supra note 2, Art. 22.

¹⁷⁹ Id. Art. 23.

¹⁸⁰ Id. Art. 24.

¹⁸¹ Id. Art. 27.

¹⁸² Id. Art. 28.

¹⁸³ Paris Decision, supra note 13, para. 22.

¹⁸⁴ Id., para. 7.

¹⁸⁵ Id., paras. 7, 8, 10, 11, 26, 28, 31, 91–96, 99–101, 103.

¹⁸⁶ Announcing: “Mission Innovation”, The White House (Nov. 29, 2015), at https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2015/11/29/announcing-mission-innovation.

¹⁸⁷ Breakthrough Energy Coalition, at http://www.breakthroughenergycoalition.com/en/index.html (last visited Mar. 15, 2016).

¹⁸⁸ Paris Pledge for Action, at http://www.parispledgeforaction.org/about/ (last visited Mar. 15, 2016).

¹⁸⁹ NAZCA stands for Nonstate Actor Zone for Climate Action. NAZCA: Accelerating Climate Action, at http://climateaction.unfccc.int (last visited Mar. 15, 2016).

¹⁹⁰ Compact of Mayors, at http://www.compactofmayors.org/ (last visited May 9, 2016).

¹⁹¹ Daniel C. Esty, Bottom-Up Climate Fix, N.Y. Times, Sept. 22, 2014, at A25.

¹⁹² Paris Agreement, supra note 2, pmbl. para. 15.

¹⁹³ Paris Decision, supra note 13, paras. 133–34.

¹⁹⁴ Tom Switzer, Paris Agreement Is a Triumph of Hope over Facts, Sydney Morning Herald (Dec. 30, 2015), at http://www.smh.com.au/comment/paris-climate-agreement-is-a-triumph-of-hope-over-facts-20151227-glvfd0.html.

¹⁹⁵ Synthesis Report on the Aggregate Effect of the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, in COP Report No. 21, supra note 2, at 10.

¹⁹⁶ Paris Agreement: Near Term Actions Do Not Match Long-Term Purpose—But Stage Is Set to Ramp Up Climate Action, Climate Action Tracker Statement (Dec. 12, 2015) at http://climateactiontracker.org/assets/publications/briefing_papers/CAT_COP21_Paris_Agreement_statement.pdf.

¹⁹⁷ Thomas Day, Frauke Röser, Ritika Tewari, Marie Kurdziel & Niklas Höhne, Preparation of Intended Nation ally Determined Contributions (INDCs) as a Catalyst for National Climate Action, at 2 (NewClimate Institute, Nov. 2015) at http://mitigationpartnership.net/sites/default/files/indc_as_catalyst.pdf.

¹⁹⁸ E.g., The Paris Agreement Marks an Unprecedented Political Recognition of the Risks of Climate Change, Economist (Dec. 12, 2015), at http://www.economist.com/news/international/21683990-paris-agreement-climate-change-talks (Paris a “far cry from the botched mess of the Copenhagen climate summit”); Harvey, supra note 10 (contrast of Paris and Copenhagen “could not have been greater”); Savaresi, Annalisa, The Paris Agreement: A New Beginning?, 34 J. Energy Nat. Res. L. 16, 18 (2016)Google Scholar (describing Copenhagen as “the low-point in the history of the climate regime”).

¹⁹⁹ See Bodansky, supra note 12, at 239–40.

²⁰⁰ E.g., Henrik Selin & Adil Najam, Paris Agreement on Climate Change: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, The Conversation (Dec. 14, 2015), at http://theconversation.com/paris-agreement-on-climate-change-the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-52242 (describing Paris as “refreshingly transparent”).

²⁰¹ The Cartagena Dialogue for Progressive Action was founded in 2010 and has involved at one time or another roughly thirty developing and developed parties, including Australia, Bangladesh, Colombia, Costa Rica, France, Germany, Indonesia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the European Commission.

²⁰² White House Press Release, supra note 36.