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Stability in symptoms of anxiety and depression as a function of genotype and environment: a longitudinal twin study from ages 3 to 63 years

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 September 2014

M. G. Nivard ,
C. V. Dolan ,
K. S. Kendler ,
K.-J. Kan ,
G. Willemsen ,
C. E. M. van Beijsterveldt ,
R. J. L. Lindauer ,
J. H. D. A. van Beek ,
L. M. Geels  and
M. Bartels
...Show all authors
M. G. Nivard*
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
C. V. Dolan
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Department of Psychological Methods, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
K. S. Kendler
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychiatry and Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA
K.-J. Kan
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
G. Willemsen
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
C. E. M. van Beijsterveldt
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
R. J. L. Lindauer
Affiliation:
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amsterdam Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
J. H. D. A. van Beek
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
L. M. Geels
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
M. Bartels
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
C. M. Middeldorp
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, GGZ inGeest/VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
D. I. Boomsma
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands EMGO+ Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
*
* Address for correspondence: M. G. Nivard, Department of Biological Psychology, Van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. (Email: m.g.nivard@vu.nl)
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Abstract

Background.

The influence of genetic factors on major depressive disorder is lower than on other psychiatric disorders. Heritability estimates mainly derive from cross-sectional studies, and knowledge on the longitudinal aetiology of symptoms of anxiety and depression (SxAnxDep) across the lifespan is limited. We aimed to assess phenotypic, genetic and environmental stability in SxAnxDep between ages 3 and 63 years.

Method.

We used a cohort-sequential design combining data from 49 524 twins followed from birth to age ⩾20 years, and from adolescence into adulthood. SxAnxDep were assessed repeatedly with a maximum of eight assessments over a 25-year period. Data were ordered in 30 age groups and analysed with longitudinal genetic models.

Results.

Over age, there was a significant increase during adolescence in mean scores with sex differences (women>men) emerging. Heritability was high in childhood and decreased to 30–40% during adulthood. This decrease in heritability was due to an increase in environmental variance. Phenotypic stability was moderate in children (correlations across ages ~0.5) and high in adolescents (r = 0.6), young adults (r = 0.7), and adults (r = 0.8). Longitudinal stability was mostly attributable to genetic factors. During childhood and adolescence there was also significant genetic innovation, which was absent in adults. Environmental effects contributed to short-term stability.

Conclusions.

The substantial stability in SxAnxDep is mainly due to genetic effects. The importance of environmental effects increases with age and explains the relatively low heritability of depression in adults. The environmental effects are transient, but the contribution to stability increases with age.

Keywords

Anxiety symptomsdepression symptomslongitudinal genetic analysis

Information

Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 45 , Issue 5 , April 2015 , pp. 1039 - 1049
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

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