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³ Jervis, Robert, “Cooperation under the Security Dilemma,” World Politics 30 (January 1978), 167–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ The definition of Prisoners' Dilemma also includes one additional restriction: CC > (DC + CD)/2. This is to ensure that it is better to have mutual cooperation than to have an even chance of being the exploiter or the exploited.

⁵ For an earlier discussion of contemporary events, using a common analytical framework to examine both economic and security relations, see Oye, , “The Domain of Choice,” in Oye, Kenneth A., Rothchild, Donald, and Lieber, Robert J., eds., Eagle Entangled: U.S. Policy in a Complex World (New York: Longman, 1979), 3–33Google Scholar.

⁶ Axelrod, Robert, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984Google Scholar).

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⁸ Krasner, Stephen D., ed., International Regimes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983Google Scholar); Keohane, Robert O., After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984Google Scholar).

⁹ Axelrod (fn. 6).

¹⁰ Lipson (fn. 1).

¹¹ Osgood, Robert E. and Tucker, Robert W., Force, Order and Justice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967Google Scholar), esp. chap. 2, “The Expansion of Force.”

¹² Keohane (fn. 8), 49–132.

¹³ Lipson, “Bankers' Dilemmas,” in this collection, 200–225.

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¹⁶ Keohane (fn. 8).

¹⁷ Hoffmann, Stanley, “International Organization and the International System,” International Organization 24 (Summer 1970), 389–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Ernst B. Haas refers to this as “tactical” issue-linkage, contrasting it with “substantive” issue-linkage resulting from causal knowledge. See Haas, , “Why Collaborate? Issue-linkage and International Regimes,” World Politics 32 (April 1985), 357–405CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 372. For a sophisticated analysis of tactical issue-linkage, see Michael McGinnis, “Issue Linkage and the Evolution of International Cooperation,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, forthcoming.

¹⁹ Tollison, Robert E. and Willett, Thomas D., “An Economic Theory of Mutually Advantageous Issue Linkage in International Negotiations,” International Organization 33 1979). 425CrossRefGoogle Scholar–49.

²⁰ Oye(fn. 5).

²¹ Schelling, Thomas C., The Strategy of Conflict (New York: Oxford University Press, 1960), 177Google Scholar.

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²⁵ George, Alexander and Smoke, Richard, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974Google Scholar).

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²⁷ Axelrod (fn. 6).

²⁸ Consider the example of Stag Hunt, defined by the preference ordering of both players as CC > DC > DD > CD. If Player A is credibly committed to a strategy of reciprocity, beginning with cooperation, fi's incentives to cooperate are enhanced. A's commitment to cooperate ensures that B will not be double-crossed (which would leave B with the worst payoff). Furthermore, A's commitment to retaliate against defection ensures that any defection by B would lead, after the first move, not to B's second-best outcome (DC), but to its third-best outcome (DD). The game of Chicken provides another appropriate case in point. In Chicken, mutual cooperation is only the second-best outcome for both players, but mutual defection is worst for both. Thus, DC > CC > CD > DD. A credible strategy of reciprocity by Player A in Chicken ensures B of its second-best outcome if it cooperates, and guarantees that continual defection will in the long run provide it with its worst payoff. Assuming that fi's shadow of the future is sufficiently long, it should respond toil's strategy of reciprocity by cooperating.

²⁹ Cline, “‘Reciprocity’: A New Approach to World Trade Policy?” Institute for International Economics, Policy Analyses in International Economics 2 (Washington: September 1982), 25.

³⁰ Axelrod (fn. 6), 138.

³¹ For example, Tversky, Amos and Kahneman, Daniel, “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” Science 185 (September 1974), 1112CrossRefGoogle Scholar–31 Nisbet, Richard and Ross, Lee, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985Google Scholar).

³² See references cited in fn. 22.

³³ Evans, , The Kennedy Round in American Trade Policy: The Twilight of the GATT? (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 31–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁵ Axelrod (fn. 6), 138.

³⁶ Jervis (fn. 31).

³⁷ For example, Tversky, Amos and Kahneman, Daniel, “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” Science 185 (September 1974CrossRefGoogle Scholar), 1124–31 Nisbet, Richard and Ross, Lee, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1985Google Scholar).

³⁸ Simon, , The Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2d ed. 1982Google Scholar), chap. 4,“The Architecture of Complexity,“p. 99.

³⁹ Krasner (fn. 8), 3.

⁴⁰ Keohane (fn. 8), chaps. 8–9.

⁴¹ Ibid., esp. chaps. 5–7.

⁴² Ruggie (fn. 15).

⁴³ Aggarwal, Vinod, “The Unraveling of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement, 1981: An Examination of Regime Change,” International Organization 37 (Autumn 1983), 617CrossRefGoogle Scholar–46; Yoffie, David B., Power and Protectionism: Strategies of the Newly Industrializing Countries (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983Google Scholar).

⁴⁴ Young, Oran R., “Regime Dynamics: The Rise and Fall of International Regimes,” International Organization 36 (Spring 1982), 277CrossRefGoogle Scholar–98; reprinted in Krasner (fn. 8), 93–114.

⁴⁵ In After Hegemony (fn. 8), Robert Keohane has sought to show how game theory (which is “upward-looking”) can be combined fruitfully with the “downward-looking” theories of public goods and market failure to develop a functional theory of international regimes. But he has not formalized his theory, and has applied it only to the post-World War II international political economy.