Hostname: page-component-76d6cb85b7-f97m6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-07-26T03:47:17.681Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Overlapping neurobehavioral circuits in ADHD, obesity, and binge eating: evidence from neuroimaging research

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2015

Karen E. Seymour ,
Shauna P. Reinblatt ,
Leora Benson  and
Susan Carnell
Karen E. Seymour*
Affiliation:
Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Shauna P. Reinblatt
Affiliation:
Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Leora Benson
Affiliation:
Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
Susan Carnell
Affiliation:
Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
*
*Address for correspondence, Karen E. Seymour, PhD, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Division of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 550 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.(Email: kseymou2@jhmi.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conditions involving excessive eating (eg, obesity, binge/loss of control eating) are increasingly prevalent within pediatric populations, and correlational and some longitudinal studies have suggested inter-relationships between these disorders. In addition, a number of common neural correlates are emerging across conditions, eg, functional abnormalities within circuits subserving reward processing and executive functioning. To explore this potential cross-condition overlap in neurobehavioral underpinnings, we selectively review relevant functional neuroimaging literature, specifically focusing on studies probing (i) reward processing, (ii) response inhibition, and (iii) emotional processing and regulation, and we outline 3 specific shared neurobehavioral circuits. Based on our review, we also identify gaps within the literature that would benefit from further research.

Keywords

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disordercomorbidityfMRIobesityoverweight

Information

Type
Review Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 20 , Special Issue 4: Pediatric Neuroimaging , August 2015 , pp. 401 - 411
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

1. Getahun, D, Jacobsen, SJ, Fassett, MJ, Chen, W, Demissie, K, Rhoads, GG. Recent trends in childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA Pediatr. 2013; 167(3): 282–288.Google Scholar
2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.Google Scholar
3. Ogden, CL, Carroll, MD, Kit, BK, Flegal, KM. Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011–2012. JAMA. 2014; 311(8): 806–814.Google Scholar
4. Barlow, SE. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics. 2007; 120(Suppl 4): S164–S192.Google Scholar
5. World Health Organization. Obesity and Overweight: Fact Sheet no . 311. 2011. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/Google Scholar
6. Polanczyk, G, de Lima, MS, Horta, BL, Biederman, J, Rohde, LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2007; 164(6): 942–948.Google Scholar
7. Tanofsky-Kraff, M, Shomaker, LB, Olsen, C, et al. A prospective study of pediatric loss of control eating and psychological outcomes. J Abnorm Psychol. 2011; 120(1): 108–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8. Tanofsky-Kraff, M, Marcus, MD, Yanovski, SZ, Yanovski, JA. Loss of control eating disorder in children age 12 years and younger: proposed research criteria. Eat Behav. 2008; 9(3): 360–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9. Holtkamp, K, Konrad, K, Muller, B, et al. Overweight and obesity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004; 28(5): 685–689.Google Scholar
10. Hanć, T, Słopień, A, Wolańczyk, T, et al. ADHD and overweight in boys: cross-sectional study with birth weight as a controlled factor. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015; 24(1): 41–53.Google Scholar
11. Fuemmeler, BF, Ostbye, T, Yang, C, McClernon, FJ, Kollins, SH. Association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and obesity and hypertension in early adulthood: a population-based study. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011; 35(6): 852–862.Google Scholar
12. Cortese, S, Ramos Olazagasti, MA, Klein, RG, Castellanos, FX, Proal, E, Mannuzza, S. Obesity in men with childhood ADHD: a 33-year controlled, prospective, follow-up study. Pediatrics. 2013; 131(6): e1731–e1738.Google Scholar
13. Agranat-Meged, AN, Deitcher, C, Goldzweig, G, Leibenson, L, Stein, M, Galili-Weisstub, E. Childhood obesity and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a newly described comorbidity in obese hospitalized children. Int J Eat Disord. 2005; 37(4): 357–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14. Erermis, S, Cetin, N, Tamar, M, Bukusoglu, N, Akdeniz, F, Goksen, D. Is obesity a risk factor for psychopathology among adolescents? Pediatr Int. 2004; 46(3): 296–301.Google Scholar
15. Khalife, N, Kantomaa, M, Glover, V, et al. Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms are risk factors for obesity and physical inactivity in adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2014; 53(4): 425–436.Google Scholar
16. Cortese, S, Angriman, M, Maffeis, C, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2008; 48(6): 524–537.Google Scholar
17. Mattos, P, Saboya, E, Ayrao, V, Segenreich, D, Duchesne, M, Coutinho, G. [Comorbid eating disorders in a Brazilian attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder adult clinical sample]. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2004; 26(4): 248–250.Google Scholar
18. Neumark-Sztainer, D, Story, M, Resnick, MD, Garwick, A, Blum, RW. Body dissatisfaction and unhealthy weight-control practices among adolescents with and without chronic illness: a population-based study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1995; 149(12): 1330–1335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19. Reinblatt, SP, Leoutsakos, JM, Mahone, EM, Forrester, S, Wilcox, HC, Riddle, MA. Association between binge eating and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in two pediatric community mental health clinics. Int J Eat Disord. In press. DOI: 10.1002/eat.22342.Google Scholar
20. Mikami, AY, Hinshaw, SP, Patterson, KA, Lee, JC. Eating pathology among adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2008; 117(1): 225–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21. Alderson, RM, Rapport, MD, Kofler, MJ. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2007; 35(5): 745–758.Google Scholar
22. Hartmann, AS, Rief, W, Hilbert, A. Impulsivity and negative mood in adolescents with loss of control eating and ADHD symptoms: an experimental study. Eat Weight Disord. 2013; 18(1): 53–60.Google Scholar
23. Cortese, S, Morcillo Penalver, C. Comorbidity between ADHD and obesity: exploring shared mechanisms and clinical implications. Postgrad Med. 2010; 122(5): 88–96.Google Scholar
24. Liu, LL, Li, BM, Yang, J, Wang, YW. Does dopaminergic reward system contribute to explaining comorbidity obesity and ADHD? Med Hypotheses. 2008; 70(6): 1118–1120.Google Scholar
25. Campbell, BC, Eisenberg, D. Obesity, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and the dopaminergic reward system. Coll Antropol. 2007; 31(1): 33–38.Google Scholar
26. Graziano, PA, Bagner, DM, Waxmonsky, JG, Reid, A, McNamara, JP, Geffken, GR. Co-occurring weight problems among children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the role of executive functioning. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012; 36(4): 567–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27. Pauli-Pott, U, Albayrak, O, Hebebrand, J, Pott, W. Association between inhibitory control capacity and body weight in overweight and obese children and adolescents: dependence on age and inhibitory control component. Child Neuropsychol. 2010; 16(6): 592–603.Google Scholar
28. Cortese, S, Comencini, E, Vincenzi, B, Speranza, M, Angriman, M. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and impairment in executive functions: a barrier to weight loss in individuals with obesity? BMC Psychiatry. 2013; 13: 286.Google Scholar
29. Choudhry, Z, Sengupta, SM, Grizenko, N, et al. Body weight and ADHD: examining the role of self-regulation. PLoS one. 2013; 8(1): e55351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30. Dempsey, A, Dyehouse, J, Schafer, J. The relationship between executive function, AD/HD, overeating, and obesity. West J Nurs Res. 2011; 33(5): 609–629.Google Scholar
31. Cortese, S, Vincenzi, B. Obesity and ADHD: clinical and neurobiological implications. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2012; 9: 199–218.Google Scholar
32. Haber, SN, Knutson, B. The reward circuit: linking primate anatomy and human imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010; 35(1): 4–26.Google Scholar
33. Knutson, B, Cooper, JC. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of reward prediction. Curr Opin Neurol. 2005; 18(4): 411–417.Google Scholar
34. Paloyelis, Y, Mehta, MA, Faraone, SV, Asherson, P, Kuntsi, J. Striatal sensitivity during reward processing in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012; 51(7): 722–732.Google Scholar
35. Nigg, JT, Casey, BJ. An integrative theory of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Dev Psychopathol. 2005; 17(3): 785–806.Google Scholar
36. Sonuga-Barke, EJ. Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57(11): 1231–1238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37. Scheres, A, Milham, MP, Knutson, B, Castellanos, FX. Ventral striatal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 61(5): 720–724.Google Scholar
38. Strohle, A, Stoy, M, Wrase, J, et al. Reward anticipation and outcomes in adult males with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroimage. 2008; 39(3): 966–972.Google Scholar
39. Plichta, MM, Scheres, A. Ventral-striatal responsiveness during reward anticipation in ADHD and its relation to trait impulsivity in the healthy population: a meta-analytic review of the fMRI literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014; 38: 125–134.Google Scholar
40. Rubia, K, Halari, R, Cubillo, A, Mohammad, AM, Brammer, M, Taylor, E. Methylphenidate normalises activation and functional connectivity deficits in attention and motivation networks in medication-naive children with ADHD during a rewarded continuous performance task. Neuropharmacology. 2009; 57(7–8): 640–652.Google Scholar
41. Luman, M, Oosterlaan, J, Sergeant, JA. The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: a review and theoretical appraisal. Clin Psychol Rev. 2005; 25(2): 183–213.Google Scholar
42. Costa Dias, TG, Wilson, VB, Bathula, DR, et al. Reward circuit connectivity relates to delay discounting in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013; 23(1): 33–45.Google Scholar
43. Rada, P, Avena, NM, Hoebel, BG. Daily bingeing on sugar repeatedly releases dopamine in the accumbens shell. Neuroscience. 2005; 134(3): 737–744.Google Scholar
44. Avena, NM, Carrillo, CA, Needham, L, Leibowitz, SF, Hoebel, BG. Sugar-dependent rats show enhanced intake of unsweetened ethanol. Alcohol. 2004; 34(2–3): 203–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45. Davis, C, Levitan, RD, Muglia, P, Bewell, C, Kennedy, JL. Decision-making deficits and overeating: a risk model for obesity. Obes Res. 2004; 12(6): 929–935.Google Scholar
46. Davis, C, Strachan, S, Berkson, M. Sensitivity to reward: implications for overeating and overweight. Appetite. 2004; 42(2): 131–138.Google Scholar
47. Avena, NM, Hoebel, BG. A diet promoting sugar dependency causes behavioral cross-sensitization to a low dose of amphetamine. Neuroscience. 2003; 122(1): 17–20.Google Scholar
48. Corwin, RL, Hajnal, A. Too much of a good thing: neurobiology of non-homeostatic eating and drug abuse. Physiol Behav. 2005; 86(1–2): 5–8.Google Scholar
49. Carnell, S, Gibson, C, Benson, L, Ochner, CN, Geliebter, A. Neuroimaging and obesity: current knowledge and future directions. Obes Rev. 2012; 13(1): 43–56.Google Scholar
50. Kennedy, J, Dimitropoulos, A. Influence of feeding state on neurofunctional differences between individuals who are obese and normal weight: a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Appetite. 2014; 75: 103–109.Google Scholar
51. Stice, E, Figlewicz, DP, Gosnell, BA, Levine, AS, Pratt, WE. The contribution of brain reward circuits to the obesity epidemic. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013; 37(9 Pt A): 2047–2058.Google Scholar
52. Bruce, AS, Holsen, LM, Chambers, RJ, et al. Obese children show hyperactivation to food pictures in brain networks linked to motivation, reward and cognitive control. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010; 34(10): 1494–1500.Google Scholar
53. Stice, E, Yokum, S, Bohon, C, Marti, N, Smolen, A. Reward circuitry responsivity to food predicts future increases in body mass: moderating effects of DRD2 and DRD4. Neuroimage. 2010; 50(4): 1618–1625.Google Scholar
54. Bruce, AS, Lepping, RJ, Bruce, JM, et al. Brain responses to food logos in obese and healthy weight children. J Pediatr. 2013; 162(4): 759–764.Google Scholar
55. Gearhardt, AN, Yokum, S, Stice, E, Harris, JL, Brownell, KD. Relation of obesity to neural activation in response to food commercials. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2014; 9(7): 932–938.Google Scholar
56. Davids, S, Lauffer, H, Thoms, K, et al. Increased dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation in obese children during observation of food stimuli. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010; 34(1): 94–104.Google Scholar
57. Shank, LM, Tanofsky-Kraff, M, Nelson, EE, et al. Attentional bias to food cues in youth with loss of control eating. Appetite. 2015; 87: 68–75.Google Scholar
58. Stice, E, Spoor, S, Bohon, C, Veldhuizen, MG, Small, DM. Relation of reward from food intake and anticipated food intake to obesity: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Abnorm Psychol. 2008; 117(4): 924–935.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59. Burger, KS, Stice, E. Greater striatopallidal adaptive coding during cue-reward learning and food reward habituation predict future weight gain. Neuroimage. 2014; 99: 122–128.Google Scholar
60. Kishinevsky, FI, Cox, JE, Murdaugh, DL, Stoeckel, LE, Cook, EW 3rd, Weller, RE. fMRI reactivity on a delay discounting task predicts weight gain in obese women. Appetite. 2012; 58(2): 582–592.Google Scholar
61. Stice, E, Yokum, S, Burger, KS, Epstein, LH, Small, DM. Youth at risk for obesity show greater activation of striatal and somatosensory regions to food. J Neurosci. 2011; 31(12): 4360–4366.Google Scholar
62. Balodis, IM, Kober, H, Worhunsky, PD, et al. Monetary reward processing in obese individuals with and without binge eating disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2013; 73(9): 877–886.Google Scholar
63. Balodis, IM, Grilo, CM, Kober, H, et al. A pilot study linking reduced fronto-striatal recruitment during reward processing to persistent bingeing following treatment for binge-eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2014; 47(4): 376–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64. Mostofsky, SH, Schafer, JG, Abrams, MT, et al. fMRI evidence that the neural basis of response inhibition is task-dependent. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2003; 17(2): 419–430.Google Scholar
65. Rubia, K, Smith, AB, Woolley, J, et al. Progressive increase of frontostriatal brain activation from childhood to adulthood during event-related tasks of cognitive control. Hum Brain Mapp. 2006; 27(12): 973–993.Google Scholar
66. Blasi, G, Goldberg, TE, Weickert, T, et al. Brain regions underlying response inhibition and interference monitoring and suppression. Eur J Neurosci. 2006; 23(6): 1658–1664.Google Scholar
67. Willcutt, E, Doyle, AE, Nigg, JT, Faraone, SV, Pennington, BF. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57(11): 1336–1346.Google Scholar
68. Nigg, JT. Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57(11): 1424–1435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69. Willcutt, E, Sonuga-Barke, EJ, Nigg, JT, Sergeant, JA. Recent developments in neuropsychological models of childhood psychiatric disorders. In: Banaschewski T, Rohde LA, eds. Biological Child Psychiatry: Recent Trends and Developments. Basel, Switzerland: Karger; 2008: 195–226.Google Scholar
70. Rubia, K, Russell, T, Overmeyer, S, et al. Mapping motor inhibition: conjunctive brain activations across different versions of go/no-go and stop tasks. Neuroimage. 2001; 13: 250–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71. Nigg, JT. On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychol Bull. 2000; 126(2): 220–246.Google Scholar
72. Eagle, DM, Bari, A, Robbins, TW. The neuropsychopharmacology of action inhibition: cross-species translation of the stop-signal and go/no-go tasks. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2008; 199(3): 439–456.Google Scholar
73. Booth, JR, Burman, DD, Meyer, JR, et al. Larger deficits in brain networks for response inhibition than for visual selective attention in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005; 46(1): 94–111.Google Scholar
74. Smith, AB, Taylor, E, Brammer, M, Toone, B, Rubia, K. Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naive children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(6): 1044–1051.Google Scholar
75. Tamm, L, Menon, V, Ringel, J, Reiss, AL. Event-related fMRI evidence of frontotemporal involvement in aberrant response inhibition and task switching in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004; 43(11): 1430–1440.Google Scholar
76. Durston, S, Tottenham, NT, Thomas, KM, et al. Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol Psychiatry. 2003; 15(10): 871–878.Google Scholar
77. Suskauer, SJ, Simmonds, DJ, Caffo, BS, Denckla, MB, Pekar, JJ, Mostofsky, SH. fMRI of intrasubject variability in ADHD: anomalous premotor activity with prefrontal compensation. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008; 47(10): 1141–1150.Google Scholar
78. Rubia, K, Smith, AB, Brammer, MJ, Toone, B, Taylor, E. Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naive adolescents with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2005; 162(6): 1067–1075.Google Scholar
79. Rubia, K, Overmeyer, S, Taylor, E, et al. Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am J Psychiatry. 1999; 156(6): 891–896.Google Scholar
80. Pliszka, SR, Glahn, DC, Semrud-Clikeman, M, et al. Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who were treatment naive or in long-term treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163(6): 1052–1060.Google Scholar
81. Passarotti, AM, Sweeney, JA, Pavuluri, MN. Neural correlates of response inhibition in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2010; 181(1): 36–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82. Rubia, K, Cubillo, A, Smith, AB, Woolley, J, Heyman, I, Brammer, MJ. Disorder-specific dysfunction in right inferior prefrontal cortex during two inhibition tasks in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2010; 31(2): 287–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83. Cubillo, A, Halari, R, Ecker, C, Giampietro, V, Taylor, E, Rubia, K. Reduced activation and inter-regional functional connectivity of fronto-striatal networks in adults with childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and persisting symptoms during tasks of motor inhibition and cognitive switching. J Psychiatr Res. 2010; 44(10): 629–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84. Hart, H, Radua, J, Nakao, T, Mataix-Cols, D, Rubia, K. Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013; 70(2): 185–198.Google Scholar
85. Cortese, S, Kelly, C, Chabernaud, C, et al. Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2012; 169(10): 1038–1055.Google Scholar
86. Batterink, L, Yokum, S, Stice, E. Body mass correlates inversely with inhibitory control in response to food among adolescent girls: an fMRI study. Neuroimage. 2010; 52(4): 1696–1703.Google Scholar
87. Hendrick, OM, Luo, X, Zhang, S, Li, CS. Saliency Processing and Obesity: A Preliminary Imaging Study of the Stop Signal Task. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2012; 20(9): 1796–1802.Google Scholar
88. Maayan, L, Hoogendoorn, C, Sweat, V, Convit, A. Disinhibited eating in obese adolescents is associated with orbitofrontal volume reductions and executive dysfunction. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011; 19(7): 1382–1387.Google Scholar
89. Thompson, RA. Emotion regulation: a theme in search of definition. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1994; 59(2–3): 25–52.Google Scholar
90. Phillips, ML, Drevets, WC, Rauch, SL, Lane, R. Neurobiology of emotion perception I: the neural basis of normal emotion perception. Biol Psychiatry. 2003; 54(5): 504–514.Google Scholar
91. Ochsner, KN, Gross, JJ. The cognitive control of emotion. Trends Cogn Sci. 2005; 9(5): 242–249.Google Scholar
92. Shaw, P, Stringaris, A, Nigg, J, Leibenluft, E. Emotion dysregulation in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171(3): 276–293.Google Scholar
93. Leibenluft, E, Gobbini, MI, Harrison, T, Haxby, JV. Mothers’ neural activation in response to pictures of their children and other children. Biol Psychiatry. 2004; 56(4): 225–232.Google Scholar
94. Gobbini, MI, Leibenluft, E, Santiago, N, Haxby, JV. Social and emotional attachment in the neural representation of faces. Neuroimage. 2004; 22(4): 1628–1635.Google Scholar
95. Gobbini, MI, Haxby, JV. Neural systems for recognition of familiar faces. Neuropsychologia. 2007; 45(1): 32–41.Google Scholar
96. Dickstein, DP, Castellanos, FX. Face processing in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2012; 9: 219–237.Google Scholar
97. Brotman, MA, Rich, BA, Guyer, AE, et al. Amygdala activation during emotion processing of neutral faces in children with severe mood dysregulation versus ADHD or bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2010; 167(1): 61–69.Google Scholar
98. Posner, J, Nagel, BJ, Maia, TV, et al. Abnormal amygdalar activation and connectivity in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011; 50(8): 828–837.Google Scholar
99. Marsh, AA, Finger, EC, Mitchell, DG, et al. Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2008; 165(6): 712–720.Google Scholar
100. Posner, J, Maia, TV, Fair, D, Peterson, BS, Sonuga-Barke, EJ, Nagel, BJ. The attenuation of dysfunctional emotional processing with stimulant medication: an fMRI study of adolescents with ADHD. Psychiatry Res. 2011; 193(3): 151–160.Google Scholar
101. Passarotti, AM, Sweeney, JA, Pavuluri, MN. Differential engagement of cognitive and affective neural systems in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2010; 16(1): 106–117.Google Scholar
102. Dallman, MF, Pecoraro, N, Akana, SF, et al. Chronic stress and obesity: a new view of “comfort food”. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003; 100(20): 11696–11701.Google Scholar
103. Block, JP, He, Y, Zaslavsky, AM, Ding, L, Ayanian, JZ. Psychosocial stress and change in weight among US adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2009; 170(2): 181–192.Google Scholar
104. Dedovic, K, D'Aguiar, C, Pruessner, JC. What stress does to your brain: a review of neuroimaging studies. Can J Psychiatry. 2009; 54(1): 6–15.Google Scholar
105. Jastreboff, AM, Potenza, MN, Lacadie, C, Hong, KA, Sherwin, RS, Sinha, R. Body mass index, metabolic factors, and striatal activation during stressful and neutral-relaxing states: an FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011; 36(3): 627–637.Google Scholar
106. Rudenga, KJ, Sinha, R, Small, DM. Acute stress potentiates brain response to milkshake as a function of body weight and chronic stress. Int J Obes (Lond). 2013; 37(2): 309–316.Google Scholar
107. Czaja, J, Rief, W, Hilbert, A. Emotion regulation and binge eating in children. Int J Eat Disord. 2009; 42(4): 356–362.Google Scholar
108. Tanofsky-Kraff, M, Goossens, L, Eddy, KT, et al. A multisite investigation of binge eating behaviors in children and adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007; 75(6): 901–913.Google Scholar
109. Tanofsky-Kraff, M, Faden, D, Yanovski, SZ, Wilfley, DE, Yanovski, JA. The perceived onset of dieting and loss of control eating behaviors in overweight children. Int J Eat Disord. 2005; 38(2): 112–122.Google Scholar
110. Volkow, ND, Wang, GJ, Maynard, L, et al. Brain dopamine is associated with eating behaviors in humans. Int J Eat Disord. 2003; 33(2): 136–142.Google Scholar
111. Bohon, C, Stice, E, Spoor, S. Female emotional eaters show abnormalities in consummatory and anticipatory food reward: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Int J Eat Disord. 2009; 42(3): 210–221.Google Scholar
112. Phelps, EA, LeDoux, JE. Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: from animal models to human behavior. Neuron. 2005; 48(2): 175–187.Google Scholar
113. Paton, JJ, Belova, MA, Morrison, SE, Salzman, CD. The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning. Nature. 2006; 439(7078): 865–870.Google Scholar
114. Yokum, S, Stice, E. Cognitive regulation of food craving: effects of three cognitive reappraisal strategies on neural response to palatable foods. Int J Obes (Lond). 2013; 37(12): 1565–1570.Google Scholar