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Poisoned Partnership: The International Mercury Cartel and Spanish–Italian Relations, 1945–1954

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2021

PABLO DEL HIERRO  and
ESPEN STORLI
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Abstract

This article investigates the development of the Spanish–Italian mercury cartel from the end of World War II to the mid-1950s. Previous literature has singled out the cartel as one of the most robust international cartels of the twentieth century, but as this article shows, the cartel broke down toward the end of the 1940s, and although briefly reestablished in 1954, it quickly dissolved again. Building on access to original source material from archives in Spain, Italy, the United States, and United Kingdom, we investigate the underlying reasons why the cartel broke down, and how and why it was eventually reestablished. Because both the main Italian and the Spanish mercury producers were state-owned, this article pays special attention to the influence of the political relations between Spain and Italy on the development of the cartel. The study of the mercury cartel is used as a prism to investigate the point where industry strategies meet government strategies. This article thus contributes to two major strands of literature, both to the business history literature on international cartels in the post-1945 world and to the diplomatic history literature on the intricate relationship between Spain and Italy in the early phase of the Cold War.

Keywords

business-government relationscartelsnatural resources

Information

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 23 , Issue 3 , September 2022 , pp. 825 - 856
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved.

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Footnotes

We would like to thank the participants at the History and Strategic Raw Materials Initiative Conference at the University of Strathclyde, 2013, for constructive comments on an early version of this article (especially Joel Wolfe, who served as commentator). We also received very helpful feedback when we presented this work in a seminar at the Department of Economic History II at Universidad Complutense, Madrid, in 2016, and in a seminar at the Department of Historical Studies, NTNU, in 2017. Finally, we would like to thank the editor and the anonymous referees of the journal for their valuable input.

References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Ballini, Pier Luigi, and Varsori, Antonio, eds. L’Italia e l’Europa (1947–1979) . Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2005.Google Scholar
Barone, Mario, and Di Nolfo, Ennio, eds. Giulio Andreotti: l’uomo, il cattolico, lo statista, Rubbettino: Soveria Mannelli, 2010.Google Scholar
Bertilorenzi, Marco. The International Aluminium Cartel, 1886–1978, London: Routledge, 2016.Google Scholar
Bowen, Wayne H. Truman, Franco’s Spain, and the Cold War . Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Branciforte, Laura. Acción política y cultural 1945–1975. Italia y España entre el rechazo y la fascinación . Madrid: Librería-Editorial Dykinson, 2014.Google Scholar
Brundu Olla, Paola. L’ anello mancante: il problema della Spagna franchista e l’organizzazione della difesa occidentale (1947–1950). Sassari: Università degli studi di Sassari, 1990.Google Scholar
Campus, Mauro. L’Italia, gli Stati Uniti e il piano Marshall . Rome: Laterza, 2008.Google Scholar
De Leonardis, Massimo. Guerra fredda e interessi nazionali. L’Italia nella politica internazionale del secondo dopoguerra . Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2014.Google Scholar
Delgado, Lorenzo. Imperio de papel: acción cultural y política exterior durante el primer franquismo. Madrid: CSIC, 1992.Google Scholar
Del Hierro, Pablo. Spanish–Italian Relations and the Influence of the Major Powers, 1943–1957. London: Palgrave, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Nolfo, Ennio, Rainero, Romain H., and Vigezzi, Brunello, eds. L’Italia e la politica di potenza in Europa (1945–50). Milan: Marzorati, 1990.Google Scholar
Di Nolfo, Ennio, and Serra, Maurizio. La gabbia infranta. Gli Alleati e l’Italia dal 1943 al 1945. Rome: Laterza, 2010.Google Scholar
Eckes, Alfred E. The United States and the Global Struggle for Minerals . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fellman, Susanna, and Shanahan, Martin, eds. Regulating Competition: Cartel Registers in the Twentieth-Century World. London: Routledge, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garavini, Giuliano. The Rise & Fall of OPEC in the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guirao, Fernando. Spain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1957. Challenge and Response, New York: St. Antony’s College, 1998.Google Scholar
Hillman, John. The International Tin Cartel. London: Routledge, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Limbaugh, Ronald H. Tungsten in Peace and War, 1918–1946, Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Marquina Barrio, Antonio. España en la política de seguridad occidental, 1938–1986. Madrid: Ediciones del Ejército, 1986.Google Scholar
Mammarella, Giuseppe, and Cacace, Paolo, La politica estera dell’Italia. Dallo Stato unitario ai giorni nostri. Rome: Laterza, 2006.Google Scholar
Medici, Lorenzo. Dalla propaganda alla cooperazione. La diplomazia culturale italiana nel secondo dopoguerra (1944–1950) . Padua: CEDAM, 2009.Google Scholar
Muñoz Soro, Javier, and Treglia, Emanuele, eds. Patria, Pan, Amore e Fantasia: La España franquista y sus relaciones con Italia (1945–1975). Madrid: Editorial Comares, 2017.Google Scholar
Palazzo, Daniele. La politica estera di De Gasperi. Dal gennaio 1945 al maggio 1947 . Civitavecchia: Prospettiva Editrice, 2006.Google Scholar
Pennington, James Wilson. Mercury: A Materials Survey . Bureau of Mines, Information Circular 7941. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1959.Google Scholar
Romero, Federico, and Varsori, Antonio, eds. Nazione, interdipendenza, integrazione. Rome: Carocci, 2007.Google Scholar
Roush, Gar A. Strategic Mineral Supplies . New York: McGraw Hill, 1939.Google Scholar
Schmitz, Christopher J. World Non-ferrous Metal Production and Prices, 1700–1976. London: Routledge, 1979.Google Scholar
Segreto, Luciano. Monte Amiata: Il mercurio italiano, strategie internazionali e vincoli extraeconomici . Milan: Franco Angeli, 1991.Google Scholar
Spar, Deborah L. The Cooperative Edge: The International Politics of International Cartels. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Varsori, Antonio. L’Italia nelle relazioni internazionali dal 1943 al 1992 . Rome: Laterza, 1998.Google Scholar
Varsori, Antonio. La Cenerentola d’Europa? L’Italia e l’integrazione europea dal 1946 ad oggi . Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2009.Google Scholar
Viñas, Angel. En las garras del águila: Los pactos con Estados Unidos, de Francisco Franco a Felipe González (1945–1995). Barcelona: Crític, 2003.Google Scholar
Barjot, Dominique, and Schröter, Harm G.. “General Introduction: Why a Special Edition on Cartels?” Revue Économique, 64, no. 6 (2013): 957–971.Google Scholar
Brogi, Alessandro. “Orizzonti della politica estera italiana: Stati Uniti, Europa e Mediterraneo (1945–1960).” Passato e Presente, 62 (2004).Google Scholar
Cañellas Mas, Antonio. “Italia ante la trayectoria política española (1957–1967).” Revista de Estudios Políticos, 175 (January/March, 2017): 177–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahlström, Malin. Konkurrens, samarbete och koncentration. Kalkstens-och cementindustrin i Sverige, 1871–1982. Gothenburg Studies in Economic History 16. Gothenburg: Unit for Economic History, Department of Economy and Society, School of Business, Economics and Law, University of Gothenburg, 2015.Google Scholar
Del Hierro, Pablo “Una figura chiave nei rapporti italo-spagnoli. Gallarati Scotti e l’ambasciata a Madrid.” In Tommaso Gallarati Scotti tra totalitarismo fascista e ripresa della vita democratica , edited by Pazzaglia, Luciano and Crevenna, Claudio, 139–158. Milan, Cisalpino, 2013.Google Scholar
Fear, Jeffrey. “Cartels and Competition: Neither Markets nor Hierarchies.” Harvard Business School Working Papers. Boston: Division of Research, Harvard Business School, 2006.Google Scholar
Fear, Jeffrey. “Cartels.” In The Oxford Handbook of Business History, edited by Jones, Geoffrey G. and Zeitlin, Jonathan, 268–292. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Ingulstad, Mats. “Winning the Hearths and Mines: Strategic Materials and American Foreign Policy, 1939–1953.” Unpublished doctoral diss., European University Institute, Florence, 2011.Google Scholar
Ingulstad, Mats. “The Interdependent Hegemon: the United States and the Quest for Strategic Raw Materials During the Early Cold War.” International History Review, 37, no. 1 (2015): 59–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuorelahti, Elina. “Who Wants a Cartel? Regulating European Timber Trade in the Nineteen-Thirties.” Unpublished doctoral diss., Helsinki University, 2018.Google Scholar
Levenstein, Margaret, and Suslow, Valerie. “What Determines Cartel Success?” Journal of Economic Literature, 44, no. 1 (2006): 43–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levenstein, Margaret, and Suslow, Valerie. “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do: Determinants of Cartel Duration.” Journal of Law and Economics, 54, no. 2 (2011): 455–492.Google Scholar
Liedtke, Boris. “Spain and the USA, 1945–1975.” In Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century, edited by Balfour, Stephen and Preston, Paul, 127–150. London: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
López-Morell, Miguel, and Segreto, Luciano. “The International Mercury Cartel, 1928–1954: Controlling Global Supply.” Business History Review, 89 (2015): 255–280.Google Scholar
MacKie-Mason, Jeffrey K., and Pindyck, Robert S.. “Cartel Theory and Cartel Experience in International Minerals Markets.” In Energy: Markets and Regulation, edited by Gordon, Richard L., Jacoby, Henry D., and Zimmerman, Martin B., 187–214. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Marquina Barrio, Antonio. “El Concordato de 1953 entre España y la Santa Sede, cincuenta años después.” UNISCI Discussion Papers, no. 3 (2003): 1–7.Google Scholar
Pardo Sanz, Rosa. “La política exterior del Franquismo: aislamiento y alineación internacional.” In El Franquismo. Visiones y balances, edited by Moreno, Roque and Caler, Francisco Sevillano, 93–118. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, 1999.Google Scholar
Schröter, Harm G. “Cartels Revisited: An Overview on Fresh Questions, New Methods, and Surprising Results.” Revue Économique, 64, no. 6 (2013): 989–1010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segreto, Luciano, and Wubs, Ben, “Resistance of the Defeated: German and Italian Big Business and the American Antitrust Policy, 1945–1957.” Enterprise and Society, 15 (2014): 307–336.Google Scholar
Stigler, George J. “A Theory of Oligopoly.” Journal of Political Economy, 72, no. 1 (1964): 44–61.Google Scholar
Suslow, Valerie. “Cartel Contract Duration: Empirical Evidence from Inter-war International Cartels.” Industrial and Corporate Change, 14, no. 5 (2005): 705–744.Google Scholar
Wurm, Clemens A. “Politik und wirtschaft in den internationalen beziehungen. Internationale kartelle, außenpolitik und weltwirtschaftliche beziehungen 1919–1939: einführung.” In International Kartelle und Außenpolitik, edited by Wurm, Clemens A., Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1989: 1–31.Google Scholar
U.S. Tariff Commission. Mercury (Quicksilver) Report to the Congress on Investigation no. 332-32 (Supplemental), Under Section 332 of the Tariff Act of 1930, Made Pursuant to Senate Resolution 206, 87th Congress, Adopted September 23, 1961. Washington, D.C., 1962.Google Scholar
Archivio Istituto Sturzo (AIS) Google Scholar
Archivio del Ministerio degli Affari Esteri (archives of the Italian Foreign Office) (ASMAE) Google Scholar
Political Affairs Section (Affari Politici), Relations between Spain and ItalyGoogle Scholar
General Direction of Economic Affairs Section: Relations between Spain and ItalyGoogle Scholar
Archivo General de la Administracion (AGA)Google Scholar
Records from the Spanish Embassy in Italy, folder: “Mercurio Europeo 1940–1950”Google Scholar
Records of the Spanish Embassy in the United States, folder: “Mercury”Google Scholar
El Archivo Histórico de las Minas de Almadén (the historic archive of the Almadén mines), Real Hospital de Mineros de San Rafael, Almadén, Spain (AHMA)Google Scholar
Archivo del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores (Archive of the Spanish Foreign Office): telegrams from Madrid to Rome (AMAe)Google Scholar
Fundación Nacional Francisco Franco (private archive of Franco managed by the Franco Foundation) (FNFF)Google Scholar
Giulio Andreotti Private Archive, Bundle 235/6Google Scholar
National Archives of the United Kingdom Foreign Office, Southern Department, Relations with Spain (NAUK)Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives, Record Group 56, State Department Decimal File: US-Italian relations (SDDF)Google Scholar
Balfour, Sebastian, and Preston, Paul, eds. Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
Ballini, Pier Luigi, and Varsori, Antonio, eds. L’Italia e l’Europa (1947–1979) . Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2005.Google Scholar
Barone, Mario, and Di Nolfo, Ennio, eds. Giulio Andreotti: l’uomo, il cattolico, lo statista, Rubbettino: Soveria Mannelli, 2010.Google Scholar
Bertilorenzi, Marco. The International Aluminium Cartel, 1886–1978, London: Routledge, 2016.Google Scholar
Bowen, Wayne H. Truman, Franco’s Spain, and the Cold War . Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Branciforte, Laura. Acción política y cultural 1945–1975. Italia y España entre el rechazo y la fascinación . Madrid: Librería-Editorial Dykinson, 2014.Google Scholar
Brundu Olla, Paola. L’ anello mancante: il problema della Spagna franchista e l’organizzazione della difesa occidentale (1947–1950). Sassari: Università degli studi di Sassari, 1990.Google Scholar
Campus, Mauro. L’Italia, gli Stati Uniti e il piano Marshall . Rome: Laterza, 2008.Google Scholar
De Leonardis, Massimo. Guerra fredda e interessi nazionali. L’Italia nella politica internazionale del secondo dopoguerra . Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2014.Google Scholar
Delgado, Lorenzo. Imperio de papel: acción cultural y política exterior durante el primer franquismo. Madrid: CSIC, 1992.Google Scholar
Del Hierro, Pablo. Spanish–Italian Relations and the Influence of the Major Powers, 1943–1957. London: Palgrave, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Nolfo, Ennio, Rainero, Romain H., and Vigezzi, Brunello, eds. L’Italia e la politica di potenza in Europa (1945–50). Milan: Marzorati, 1990.Google Scholar
Di Nolfo, Ennio, and Serra, Maurizio. La gabbia infranta. Gli Alleati e l’Italia dal 1943 al 1945. Rome: Laterza, 2010.Google Scholar
Eckes, Alfred E. The United States and the Global Struggle for Minerals . Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fellman, Susanna, and Shanahan, Martin, eds. Regulating Competition: Cartel Registers in the Twentieth-Century World. London: Routledge, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garavini, Giuliano. The Rise & Fall of OPEC in the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guirao, Fernando. Spain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1957. Challenge and Response, New York: St. Antony’s College, 1998.Google Scholar
Hillman, John. The International Tin Cartel. London: Routledge, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Limbaugh, Ronald H. Tungsten in Peace and War, 1918–1946, Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Marquina Barrio, Antonio. España en la política de seguridad occidental, 1938–1986. Madrid: Ediciones del Ejército, 1986.Google Scholar
Mammarella, Giuseppe, and Cacace, Paolo, La politica estera dell’Italia. Dallo Stato unitario ai giorni nostri. Rome: Laterza, 2006.Google Scholar
Medici, Lorenzo. Dalla propaganda alla cooperazione. La diplomazia culturale italiana nel secondo dopoguerra (1944–1950) . Padua: CEDAM, 2009.Google Scholar
Muñoz Soro, Javier, and Treglia, Emanuele, eds. Patria, Pan, Amore e Fantasia: La España franquista y sus relaciones con Italia (1945–1975). Madrid: Editorial Comares, 2017.Google Scholar
Palazzo, Daniele. La politica estera di De Gasperi. Dal gennaio 1945 al maggio 1947 . Civitavecchia: Prospettiva Editrice, 2006.Google Scholar
Pennington, James Wilson. Mercury: A Materials Survey . Bureau of Mines, Information Circular 7941. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1959.Google Scholar
Romero, Federico, and Varsori, Antonio, eds. Nazione, interdipendenza, integrazione. Rome: Carocci, 2007.Google Scholar
Roush, Gar A. Strategic Mineral Supplies . New York: McGraw Hill, 1939.Google Scholar
Schmitz, Christopher J. World Non-ferrous Metal Production and Prices, 1700–1976. London: Routledge, 1979.Google Scholar
Segreto, Luciano. Monte Amiata: Il mercurio italiano, strategie internazionali e vincoli extraeconomici . Milan: Franco Angeli, 1991.Google Scholar
Spar, Deborah L. The Cooperative Edge: The International Politics of International Cartels. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Varsori, Antonio. L’Italia nelle relazioni internazionali dal 1943 al 1992 . Rome: Laterza, 1998.Google Scholar
Varsori, Antonio. La Cenerentola d’Europa? L’Italia e l’integrazione europea dal 1946 ad oggi . Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2009.Google Scholar
Viñas, Angel. En las garras del águila: Los pactos con Estados Unidos, de Francisco Franco a Felipe González (1945–1995). Barcelona: Crític, 2003.Google Scholar
Barjot, Dominique, and Schröter, Harm G.. “General Introduction: Why a Special Edition on Cartels?” Revue Économique, 64, no. 6 (2013): 957–971.Google Scholar
Brogi, Alessandro. “Orizzonti della politica estera italiana: Stati Uniti, Europa e Mediterraneo (1945–1960).” Passato e Presente, 62 (2004).Google Scholar
Cañellas Mas, Antonio. “Italia ante la trayectoria política española (1957–1967).” Revista de Estudios Políticos, 175 (January/March, 2017): 177–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahlström, Malin. Konkurrens, samarbete och koncentration. Kalkstens-och cementindustrin i Sverige, 1871–1982. Gothenburg Studies in Economic History 16. Gothenburg: Unit for Economic History, Department of Economy and Society, School of Business, Economics and Law, University of Gothenburg, 2015.Google Scholar
Del Hierro, Pablo “Una figura chiave nei rapporti italo-spagnoli. Gallarati Scotti e l’ambasciata a Madrid.” In Tommaso Gallarati Scotti tra totalitarismo fascista e ripresa della vita democratica , edited by Pazzaglia, Luciano and Crevenna, Claudio, 139–158. Milan, Cisalpino, 2013.Google Scholar
Fear, Jeffrey. “Cartels and Competition: Neither Markets nor Hierarchies.” Harvard Business School Working Papers. Boston: Division of Research, Harvard Business School, 2006.Google Scholar
Fear, Jeffrey. “Cartels.” In The Oxford Handbook of Business History, edited by Jones, Geoffrey G. and Zeitlin, Jonathan, 268–292. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Ingulstad, Mats. “Winning the Hearths and Mines: Strategic Materials and American Foreign Policy, 1939–1953.” Unpublished doctoral diss., European University Institute, Florence, 2011.Google Scholar
Ingulstad, Mats. “The Interdependent Hegemon: the United States and the Quest for Strategic Raw Materials During the Early Cold War.” International History Review, 37, no. 1 (2015): 59–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuorelahti, Elina. “Who Wants a Cartel? Regulating European Timber Trade in the Nineteen-Thirties.” Unpublished doctoral diss., Helsinki University, 2018.Google Scholar
Levenstein, Margaret, and Suslow, Valerie. “What Determines Cartel Success?” Journal of Economic Literature, 44, no. 1 (2006): 43–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levenstein, Margaret, and Suslow, Valerie. “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do: Determinants of Cartel Duration.” Journal of Law and Economics, 54, no. 2 (2011): 455–492.Google Scholar
Liedtke, Boris. “Spain and the USA, 1945–1975.” In Spain and the Great Powers in the Twentieth Century, edited by Balfour, Stephen and Preston, Paul, 127–150. London: Routledge, 1999.Google Scholar
López-Morell, Miguel, and Segreto, Luciano. “The International Mercury Cartel, 1928–1954: Controlling Global Supply.” Business History Review, 89 (2015): 255–280.Google Scholar
MacKie-Mason, Jeffrey K., and Pindyck, Robert S.. “Cartel Theory and Cartel Experience in International Minerals Markets.” In Energy: Markets and Regulation, edited by Gordon, Richard L., Jacoby, Henry D., and Zimmerman, Martin B., 187–214. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Marquina Barrio, Antonio. “El Concordato de 1953 entre España y la Santa Sede, cincuenta años después.” UNISCI Discussion Papers, no. 3 (2003): 1–7.Google Scholar
Pardo Sanz, Rosa. “La política exterior del Franquismo: aislamiento y alineación internacional.” In El Franquismo. Visiones y balances, edited by Moreno, Roque and Caler, Francisco Sevillano, 93–118. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, 1999.Google Scholar
Schröter, Harm G. “Cartels Revisited: An Overview on Fresh Questions, New Methods, and Surprising Results.” Revue Économique, 64, no. 6 (2013): 989–1010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segreto, Luciano, and Wubs, Ben, “Resistance of the Defeated: German and Italian Big Business and the American Antitrust Policy, 1945–1957.” Enterprise and Society, 15 (2014): 307–336.Google Scholar
Stigler, George J. “A Theory of Oligopoly.” Journal of Political Economy, 72, no. 1 (1964): 44–61.Google Scholar
Suslow, Valerie. “Cartel Contract Duration: Empirical Evidence from Inter-war International Cartels.” Industrial and Corporate Change, 14, no. 5 (2005): 705–744.Google Scholar
Wurm, Clemens A. “Politik und wirtschaft in den internationalen beziehungen. Internationale kartelle, außenpolitik und weltwirtschaftliche beziehungen 1919–1939: einführung.” In International Kartelle und Außenpolitik, edited by Wurm, Clemens A., Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1989: 1–31.Google Scholar
U.S. Tariff Commission. Mercury (Quicksilver) Report to the Congress on Investigation no. 332-32 (Supplemental), Under Section 332 of the Tariff Act of 1930, Made Pursuant to Senate Resolution 206, 87th Congress, Adopted September 23, 1961. Washington, D.C., 1962.Google Scholar
Archivio Istituto Sturzo (AIS) Google Scholar
Archivio del Ministerio degli Affari Esteri (archives of the Italian Foreign Office) (ASMAE) Google Scholar
Political Affairs Section (Affari Politici), Relations between Spain and ItalyGoogle Scholar
General Direction of Economic Affairs Section: Relations between Spain and ItalyGoogle Scholar
Archivo General de la Administracion (AGA)Google Scholar
Records from the Spanish Embassy in Italy, folder: “Mercurio Europeo 1940–1950”Google Scholar
Records of the Spanish Embassy in the United States, folder: “Mercury”Google Scholar
El Archivo Histórico de las Minas de Almadén (the historic archive of the Almadén mines), Real Hospital de Mineros de San Rafael, Almadén, Spain (AHMA)Google Scholar
Archivo del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores (Archive of the Spanish Foreign Office): telegrams from Madrid to Rome (AMAe)Google Scholar
Fundación Nacional Francisco Franco (private archive of Franco managed by the Franco Foundation) (FNFF)Google Scholar
Giulio Andreotti Private Archive, Bundle 235/6Google Scholar
National Archives of the United Kingdom Foreign Office, Southern Department, Relations with Spain (NAUK)Google Scholar
U.S. National Archives, Record Group 56, State Department Decimal File: US-Italian relations (SDDF)Google Scholar