Introduction

The work and theory of Vygotsky (1978, 1987), Luria (1966, 1987), and Leont'ev (1978) reflect their commitment to dialectical and historical materialism. This commitment led to their interest in the phylogeny as well as the ontogeny of the activity of organisms. The personal and societal histories of these three leaders in human science did not make it possible for them to be aware of complex developments in the study of the evolution of behavior.

Vygotsky was clearly knowledgeable about the most well-known research in primate behavior, but the significant theoretical controversies about such work were to occur after his lifetime. Luria and Leont'ev were equally well read in the European and North American literature. However, they also were part of the Soviet scientific community and reflected the dominant thinking in the biological and physiological disciplines. Soviet scientists by and large accepted the traditional division between “animals” and humans; although humans had some “lower animal instincts, drives and emotions,” they were reflective primarily of societal processes (Graham, 1987). The history of this view in relation to Marx, Engels, and Lenin requires its own treatment, but it is fair to say that it was the view held by those three dialectical materialists, as well as by Vygotsky, Luria, and Leont'ev.(the “Troika” of activity theory).

This belief by the Troika does not detract from their significant development of human activity theory based on historical and dialectical materialism.