Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-nwzlb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T00:07:49.764Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

8 - Traffic collisions involving deer and other ungulates in Europe and available measures for mitigation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 April 2011

Jochen Langbein
Affiliation:
Chapel Cleeve, Minehead
Rory Putman
Affiliation:
Manchester Metropolitan University
Bostjan Pokorny
Affiliation:
University of Oslo
Rory Putman
Affiliation:
Manchester Metropolitan University
Marco Apollonio
Affiliation:
Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sardinia
Reidar Andersen
Affiliation:
Museum of Natural History and Archaeology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim
Get access

Summary

Introduction: the scale of the problem

As road infrastructures proliferate, traffic volumes and speeds rise, and ungulate densities also increase throughout Europe (Gill, 1990; Apollonio et al., 2010), so the frequency of road traffic accidents involving wildlife also escalates throughout Europe.

In 1982 some 10 000 road accidents were recorded in Sweden due to collisions with moose, red deer and roe deer; by 1993 that number had risen to 55 000, with mortality of roe deer alone in excess of 50 000 (Groot Bruinderink and Hazebroek, 1996). Statistics presented by Groot Bruinderink and Hazebroek showed this to be a general trend throughout Europe, and suggested that, at that time, vehicle–ungulate collisions in Europe as whole may have been of the order of 500 000. Estimates offered by Apollonio et al. (2010) indicate that, at least in those countries where estimates are attempted, numbers had risen substantially by 2005 (Table 8.1). Formal records are only maintained in a small proportion of countries, whereas in many others comparable data are not available. It is therefore not possible to offer an accurate estimate for the total number of collisions occurring in Europe as a whole, although we may note that totals recorded in the table (for fewer than half the countries of Europe) already approximate to 400 000, with the full toll of ungulates killed annually on European roads likely to be closer to 1 million.

Type
Chapter
Information
Ungulate Management in Europe
Problems and Practices
, pp. 215 - 259
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

,ADAC (2008) Grünbrücken: Empfehlungen für die Praxis. [Advice note on green-bridges] (In German) München, Germany: ADAC.Google Scholar
Allen, R.E. and McCullough, D.R. (1976) Deer-car accidents in Southern Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 40, 317–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersen, N.P. and Madsen, A.B. (2007) Trafi kdræbte større dyr i Danmark – kortlægning og analyse af påkørselsforhold. (In Danish with English summary) Faglig rapport fra DMU nr. 626. Aarhus, Denmark: Danmarks Miljøundersøgelser, Aarhus Universitet. Online: www2.dmu.dk/Pub/FR626a.pdfGoogle Scholar
Andersen, R., Lund, E., Solberg, E. and Sæther, B.-E. (2010) Ungulates and their management in Norway. In Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. and Putman, R. (eds.) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 14–36.Google Scholar
Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. and Putman, R. (eds.) (2010) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 604 pp.
Armstrong, J.J. (1992) An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Swareflex Deer Reflectors. Toronto, Canada: Research and Development Branch, Ministry of Transportation.Google Scholar
Ballon, P. (1985) Bilan technique des aménagements réalisés en France pour réduire les impacts des grandes infrastructures linéaires sur les ongulés gibiers. In Actes du XVII ème Congrès de l'Union Internationale des Biologistes du Gibier, pp. 679–689.
Bashore, T.L., Tzilkowski, W.M. and Bellis, E.D. (1985) Analysis of deer-vehicle collision sites in Pennsylvania. Journal of Wildlife Management 49, 769–774.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bissonette, J.A. and Adair, W. (2008) Restoring habitat permeability to roaded landscapes with isometrically-scaled wildlife crossings. Biological Conservation 141, 482–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bissonette, J.A. and Hammer, M. (2000) Effectiveness of earthen ramps in reducing big game highway mortality in Utah. Utah Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit Report Series 1, 1–29.Google Scholar
Bissonette, J.A., Kassar, C. and Cook, L.J. (2008) An assessment of costs associated with deer-vehicle collisions: human death and injury, vehicle damage, and deer loss. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2, 17–27.Google Scholar
Carranza, J. (2010) Ungulates and their management in Spain. In Apollonio, M., Andersen, R., and Putman, R. (eds.) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 419–440.Google Scholar
Carsignol, J. (1989) Dix années d'observations des collisions vehicules-grand mammifères gibiers sur l'autoroute A4 en Alsace-Lorraine et sur le réseau routier du département de la Moselle. Office National de la Chasse, Bulletin Mensuelle 135, 32–37.Google Scholar
Clevenger, A.P. and Waltho, N. (2000) Factors influencing the effectiveness of wildlife underpasses in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada. Conservation Biology 14, 47–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clevenger, A.P., Chruszcz, B. and Gunson, K.E. (2001) Highway mitigation fencing reduces wildlife-vehicle collisions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29, 646–653.Google Scholar
Clevenger, A.P., Chruszcz, B., Gunson, K.E. and Wierzchowski, J. (2002) Roads and Wildlife in the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks: Movement, Mortality and Mitigation. Final report to Parks Canada, Banff, Alberta, Canada, 432 pp.Google Scholar
Conover, M.R., Pitt, W.C., Kessler, K.K., DuBow, T.J. and Sanborn, , , W.A. (1995) Review of human injuries, illnesses, and economic losses caused by wildlife in the United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23, 407–414.Google Scholar
,CTGREF (1978) Autoroute et Grand Gibier. Note technique 42. Paris: Ministère de l'Agriculture, Groupement Technique Forestier.Google Scholar
D'Angelo, G.J., D'Angelo, J.G., Gallagher, G.R., et al. (2006) Evaluation of wildlife warning reflectors for altering white-tailed deer behavior along roadways. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34, 1175–1183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danielson, B.J. and Hubbard, M.W. (1998) A literature review for assessing the status of current methods of reducing deer-vehicle collisions. Unpublished report to Iowa Department of Transportation and Iowa Department of Natural Resources.
Decker, D.J., Loconti Lee, K.M. and Connelly, N.A. (1990) Incidences and Costs of Deer-related Vehicular Accidents in Tomkins County, New York. HDRU Series 89–7, revised February 1990. New York: Department of Natural Resources, New York State Agricultural College and Cornell University, 22 pp.Google Scholar
,Deer-Vehicle Crash Information Clearing House (DVCIC) (2003) On-line manual of mitigation measures and perceived effectiveness. Online www.deercrash.com/toolboxGoogle Scholar
Desire, G. and Recorbet, G. (1990) Resultats de l'enquete réalisée de 1984 à 1986 sur les collisions entre les vehicules et les grands mammifères sauvages. Office National de la Chasse, Bulletin Mensuelle 143, 38–47.Google Scholar
Doerr, M.L., McAninch, J.B. and Wiggers, E.P. (2001) Comparison of 4 methods to reduce white-tailed deer abundance in an urban community. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29, 1105–1113.Google Scholar
,ECONAT (1992) Protection de la faune dans les projets de nouveau tracés ferroviaires. Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland: ECONAT, 51 pp.Google Scholar
Etter, D.R., Deelen, T.R., Ludwig, D.R., Kobal, S.N. and Warner, R.E. (2002) Survival and movements of white-tailed deer in suburban Chicago, Illinois. Journal of Wildlife Management 66, 500–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehlberg, U. (1994) Ökologische Barrierewirkung von Strassen auf wild-lebende Säugetiere. Deutsche Tierärzliche Wochenschrift 101, 81–132.Google Scholar
Feldhamer, G.A., Gates, J.E., Harman, D.M., Loranger, A.J. and Dixon, K.R. (1986) Effects of interstate highway fencing on white-tailed deer activity. Journal of Wildlife Management 50, 497–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finder, R.A., Roseberry, J.L. and Woolf, A. (1999) Site and landscape conditions at white-tailed deer collision locations in Illinois. Landscape and Urban Planning 44, 77–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, S.G. and Villa, S.L. (1993) Reflector Use and the Effect they have on the Number of Mule Deer Killed on California Highways. Report FHWA/CA/PD94/01. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Transport.Google Scholar
Forman, R.T.T. and Alexander, L.E. (1998) Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29, 207–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forman, R.T.T., Friedman, D.S., Fitzhenry, D., et al. (1997) Ecological effects of roads: toward three summary indices and an overview for North America. In Canters, K., Piepers, A. and Hendriks-Heersma, D. (eds.) Habitat Fragmentation and Infrastructure. Proceedings of the International Conference on Habitat Fragmentation, Infrastructure and the role of Ecological Engineering, 17–21 September 1995. Delft, the Netherlands: Ministry of Transport Public Works and Water Management, pp. 40–54.Google Scholar
Georgii, B. and Wotschikowski, U. (2007) Strassen und Wildtiere. [In German] Bonn, Germany: Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung.Google Scholar
Georgii, B., Peters-Ostenberg, E., Henneberg, M., et al. (2007) Nutzung von Grünbrücken und anderen Querungsbauwerken durch Säugetiere. Gesamtbericht zum Forschungs- und Entwicklungsvorhaben. [In German] Forschung Strassenbau und Strassenverkehrstechnik 971. Bonn, Germany: Bundesministerium für Verkehr.Google Scholar
Gilbert, J.R. (1982) Evaluation of Deer Mirrors for Reducing Deer-Vehicle Collisions. United States Federal Highway Administration Report FHWA/RD/82/061. Washington, DC: United States Federal Highway Administration, 16 pp.Google Scholar
Gill, R.M.A. (1990) Monitoring the Status of European and North American Cervids. GEMS Information Series, 8. Nairobi, Kenya: Global Environment Monitoring Systems, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. 277 pp.Google Scholar
Gladfelter, J.R. (1982) Effect of Wildlife Highway Warning Reflectors on Deer-Vehicle Accidents. Iowa Highway Research Board Project HR-210. Iowa Department of Transportation, 11 pp.Google Scholar
Gleason, J.S. and Jenks, J.A. (1993) Factors influencing deer–vehicle mortality in east central South Dakota. Prairie Naturalist 25, 281–288.Google Scholar
Gordon, K.M., Anderson, S., Gribble, B. and Johnson, M. (2003) Evaluation of the FLASH (flashing light animal sensing host) system in Nugget Canyon, Wyoming. Report FHWAWYL-01/03F. Laramie, WY: Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit.Google Scholar
Groot Bruinderink, G.W.T.A. and Hazebroek, E. (1996) Ungulate traffic collisions in Europe. Conservation Biology 10, 1059–1067.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grovenburg, T.W., Jenks, J.A., Klaver, R.W., et al. (2008) Factors affecting road mortality of white-tailed deer in eastern South Dakota. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2, 48–59.Google Scholar
Haikonen, H. and Summala, H. (2001) Deer-vehicle crashes – extensive peak at 1 hour after sunset. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 21, 209–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, C. and Wade, M.G. (2004) Deer Avoidance: the Assignment of Real World Enhanced Deer Signage in a Virtual Environment. Saint Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Transportation.Google Scholar
Hansen, C.S. (1983) Costs of deer-vehicle accidents in Michigan. Wildlife Society Bulletin 11, 161–164.Google Scholar
Hardy, A., Lee, S. and Al-Kaisy, A.F. (2006) Effectiveness of animal advisory messages on dynamic message signs as a speed reduction tool. Transportation Research Record 1973, 64–72.Google Scholar
Hartwig, D. (1991) Erfassung der Verkehrsunfälle mit Wild im Jahre 1989 in Nordrhein-Westfalen im Bereich der Polizeibehörden. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft 37, 55–62.Google Scholar
Hartwig, D. (1993) Auswertung der durch Wild Verursachten Verkehrsunfälle nach der Statistik für Nordrhein-Westfalen. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft 39, 22–33.Google Scholar
Hatt, S. (2000) Grünbrücke Lotterbuck A 4.2.9: Eine Erfolgskontrolle nach drei Jahren. Schweitzerische Zeitschrift für Forstwessen 151, 290–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedlund, J.H., Curtis, P.D. and Williams, A.F. (2004) Methods to reduce traffic crashes involving deer: what works and what does not. Traffic Injury Prevention 5, 122–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hlavac, V. and Andel, P. (2002) On the Permeability of Roads for Wildlife: A Handbook. Prague: Agency for Nature Conservation and Landscape Protection of the Czech Republic.Google Scholar
Hubbard, M.W., Danielson, B.J. and Schmitz, R.A. (2000) Factors influencing the location of deer-vehicle accidents in Iowa. Journal of Wildlife Management 64, 707–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huijser, M.P. and McGowen, P.T. (2003) Overview of animal detection and animal warning systems in North America and Europe. In Irwin, C.L., Garrett, P. and McDermott, K.P. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Ecology and Transportation, held Lake Placid, New York. Raleigh, NC: Center for Transportation and the Environment, North Carolina State University.Google Scholar
Huijser, M.P., McGowen, P.T., Camel, W., et al. (2006) Animal Vehicle Crash Mitigation Using Advanced Technology Phase 1: Review, Design and Implementation. Oregon Department of Transportation Research Unit, Salem, Oregon, and Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Hussain, A., Armstrong, J.B., Brown, D.B. and Hogland, J. (2007) Land-use pattern, urbanization, and deer–vehicle collisions in Alabama. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 1, 89–96.Google Scholar
Imesch-Bebié, N., Gander, H. and Schnidrig-Petrig, R. (2010) Ungulates and their management in Switzerland. In Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. and Putman, R. (eds.) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 357–391.Google Scholar
,Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) (1993) Deer, moose collisions with motor vehicles peak in spring and fall. Status Report 28(4).Google Scholar
,Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) (2004) Lots of approaches are under way to reduce deer collisions, but few have proven effective. Status Report 39(1), 5–7.Google Scholar
,Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) (2008) Collisions with deer and other animals spike in November; fatal crashes up 50% since 2000. IIHS Press Release, 30 October 2008. Online www.iihs.org/news/2008/iihs_news_103008.pdf
Iuell, B., Bekker, G.J., Cuperus, R.et al. (2003) Wildlife and Traffic: A European Handbook for Identifying Conflicts and Designing Solutions. Action 341 on ‘Habitat Fragmentation due to Transportation Infrastructure’. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
Jared, D. (1992) Evaluation of Wild Animal Highway Warning Reflectors. Report 98003. Atlanta, GA: Georgia Department of Transportation.Google Scholar
Jaren, V., Andersen, R., Ulleberg, M., Pedersen, P.H. and Wiseth, B. (1991) Moose-train collisions: the effects of vegetation removal with a cost-benefit analysis. Alces 27, 93–99.Google Scholar
Jenks, J.A., Smith, W.P. and DePerno, C.S. (2002) Maximum sustained yield harvest versus trophy management. Journal of Wildlife Management 66, 528–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, J.M. and Witham, J.H. (1993). Urban deer ‘problem-solving’ in northeast Illinois: an overview. In McAninch, J.B. (ed.) Proceedings of the 55th Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference: Urban Deer: A Manageable Resource. St. Louis, MO: The Wildlife Society, pp. 58–65.Google Scholar
Kerzel, H. (2005) Wildunfälle: Zur Notwendigkeit von Verkehrsschutzzäunen und Grünbrücken. In Grünbrücken für den Biotopverbund. Schriftenreihe des Landesjagdverbandes Bayern e.V. 14, pp. 77–86.Google Scholar
Kerzel, H. and Kirchberger, U. (1993) Erfolge im Kampf gegen Wildunfälle. Die Pirsch 18, 3–5.Google Scholar
Kuser, J.E. and Wolgast, L.J. (1983) Deer road-kill increases with no-firearms-discharge law. Bulletin of the New Jersey Academy of Science 28, 71–72.Google Scholar
Langbein, J. (1985) North Staffordshire Deer Survey 1983–1985. I. Research and Development. Fordingbridge, UK: British Deer Society.Google Scholar
Langbein, J. (2006) Conservation and Management of Deer in Epping Forest and its Buffer Land Estate. Report to the Corporation of the City of London.Google Scholar
Langbein, J. (2007a) National Deer-Vehicle Collisions Project: England 2003–2005. Final Report to the Highways Agency. Wrexham, UK: The Deer Initiative.Google Scholar
Langbein, J. (2007b) Use of remote video surveillance to investigate deer behaviour in relation to wildlife deterrents, roads and vehicles. Presentation at ‘Deer on our Roads Seminar’, Ashridge, UK, October 2007. Online www.deercollisions.co.uk/pages/workshop2.html]Google Scholar
Langbein, J. (2009) Ecopillar Acoustic Wildlife Warning Devices: Acoustic Characteristics and Effectiveness at Alerting Deer and Deterring them from Crossing in Front of Traffic. Research Report 09/04 to the Highways Agency. Wrexham, UK: The Deer Initiative.Google Scholar
Langbein, J. and Putman, R.J. (2006) National Deer-Vehicle Collisions Project; Scotland, 2003–2005. Report to the Scottish Executive, June 2006.
Lavsund, S. and Sandegren, F. (1991) Moose-vehicle relations in Sweden: a review. Alces 27, 118–126.Google Scholar
Lebersorger, P. (1993) Verkehrspartner Wild. Weidwerk 11, 47–48.Google Scholar
Leblond, M., Dussault, C., Ouellet, J., et al. (2007) Electric fencing as a measure to reduce moose-vehicle collisions. Journal of Wildlife Management 71, 1695–1703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehnert, M.E. and Bissonette, J.A. (1997) Effectiveness of highways crosswalk structures in reducing deer-vehicle collisions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25, 809–818.Google Scholar
Lode, T. (2000) Effect of a motorway on mortality and isolation of wildlife populations. Ambio 29, 163–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lutz, W. (1994) Ergebnisse der Anwendung eines sogenannten Duftzaunes zur Vermeidung von Wildverlusten durch den Strassenverkehr nach Gehege- und Freilandorientierungen. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft 40, 91–108.Google Scholar
Madsen, A.B., Strandgaard, H. and Prang, A. (2002) Factors causing traffic killings of roe deer, Capreolus capreolus in Denmark. Wildlife Biology 8, 55–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maillard, D., Gaillard, J.-M., Hewison, M., et al. (2010) Ungulates and their management in France. In Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. and Putman, R. (eds.) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 441–474.Google Scholar
Malo, J.E, Suarez, F. and Diaz, A. (2004) Can we mitigate animal-vehicle accidents using predictive models?Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 701–710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mastro, L.L., Conover, M.R. and Frey, S.N. (2008) Deer-vehicle collision prevention techniques. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2, 80–92.Google Scholar
McCaffery, K.R. (1973) Road-kills show trends in Wisconsin deer populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 37, 212–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McShea, W.J., Stewart, C.M., Kearns, L.J., Liccioli, S. and Kocka, D. (2008) Factors affecting autumn deer–vehicle collisions in a rural Virginia county. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2, 110–121.Google Scholar
Mladenhoff, D.J., Sickely, T.A. and Wydeve, A.P. (1999) Predicting gray wolf landscape recolonization: logistic regression models vs field data. Ecological Applications 9, 37–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosler-Berger, C. and Romer, J. (2003) Wildwarnsystem CALSTROM. [In German] Wildbiologie 3, 1–2.Google Scholar
Nielsen, C.K., Anderson, R.G. and Grund, M.D. (2003) Landscape influences on deer-vehicle accident areas in an urban environment. Journal of Wildlife Management 67, 46–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ng, J.W., Nielsen, C. and St. Clair, C.C. (2008) Landscape factors influencing deer–vehicle collisions in an urban environment. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2, 34–47.Google Scholar
Olbrich, P. (1984) Untersuchung der Wirksamkeit von Wildwarnreflektoren und der Eignung von Wilddurchlässen. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft 30, 101–116.Google Scholar
Olsson, M.P.O, Widen, P. and Larkin, J.L. (2008) Effectiveness of a highway overpass to promote landscape connectivity and movement of moose and roe deer in Sweden. Landscape and Urban Planning 85, 133–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oord, J.G. (1995) Handreiking maatregelen voor de fauna langs weg en water, Rijkswaterstaat. Delft, Netherlands: Dienst Weg- en Waterbouwkunde & Dienst Landinrichting en Beheer Landbouwgronden, 278 pp.Google Scholar
Pafko, F. and Kovach, B. (1996) Experience with Deer Reflectors: Trends in Assessing Transportation Related Wildlife Mortality. St Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Transportation.Google Scholar
Pepper, H.W. (1999) Road traffic accidents and deer reflectors: a comparative trial of the efficacy of standard red and new blue/green roadside reflectors at preventing motor vehicle and wild deer collisions. Internal report on Project 257. London: Forestry Commission, Forest Research.Google Scholar
Pepper, H.W., Chadwick, A.H. and Packer, J.J. (1998) Deer Reflectors and Road Traffic Accidents through Forestry Commission Forests: A Review of Traffic Accident Records for Roads where Deer Warning Reflectors have been Installed. Appendix to contract report VC 0317. London: Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Foods.Google Scholar
Pfister, H.P., Keller, V., Reck, H. and Georgii, B. (1997) Bio-ökologische Wirksamkeit von Grünbrücken über Verkehrswege. Forschung Straßenbau und Straßenverkehrstechnik 756. Bonn, Germany: Bundesministerium für Verkehr.Google Scholar
Pfister, H.P., Heynen, D., Georgii, B., Keller, V. and Lerber, F. (1999) Häufigkeit und Verhalten ausgewählter Wildsäuger auf unterschiedlich breiten Wildtierbrücken (Grünbrücken). Sempach, Switzerland: Schweizerische Vogelwarte, 49 pp.Google Scholar
Pojar, T.M., Reseigh, T.C. and Reed, D.F. (1972) Deer crossing signs may prove valuable in reducing accidents and animal deaths. Highway Research News 46, 20–23.Google Scholar
Pojar, T.M., Prosence, R.A., Reed, D.F. and Woodard, T.N. (1975) Effectiveness of a lighted, animated deer crossing sign. Journal of Wildlife Management 39, 87–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pokorny, B. (2006) Roe deer-vehicle collisions in Slovenia: situation, mitigation strategy and countermeasures. Veterinarski Arhiv 76, 177–187.Google Scholar
Pokorny, B. and Poličnik, H. (2008) Monitoring učinkovitosti izvedenih ukrepov za preprečevanje trkov vozil z divjadjo. [Monitoring of effectiveness of countermeasures implemented for reducing the number of game-vehicle collisions] (In Slovene) Final report for Slovene Directorate for Roads, Contract no. 2415–07–000721/0. Velenje, Slovenia: ERICo, 82 pp.Google Scholar
Pokorny, B., Marolt, J. and Poličnik, H. (2008) Ocena učinkovitosti in vplivov zvočnih odvračalnih naprav kot sredstva za zmanjšanje števila trkov vozil z veliko divjadjo. [Assessment of the effectiveness and impacts of acoustic deterrents as a countermeasure for reducing the number of big game-vehicle collisions] (In Slovene) Final report for Slovene Hunters Association, Contract no. LZS-04/1298. Velenje, Slovenia: ERICo, 107 pp.Google Scholar
Puglisi, M.J., Lindzey, J.S. and Bellis, E.D. (1974) Factors associated with highway mortality of white-tailed deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 38, 799–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pürstl, A. (2006) Tierärztlichles Gutachten zum Farbsehvermögen von Rot und Rehwild. Vienna: Tierambulanz Türkenschanzplatz. (unpublished report)Google Scholar
Putman, R.J. (1997) Deer and road traffic accidents: options for management. Journal of Environmental Management 51, 43–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putman, R.J., Langbein, J. and Staines, B.W. (2004) Deer and Road Traffic Accidents; A Review of Mitigation Measures: Costs and Cost-Effectiveness. Report to the Deer Commission for Scotland, Contract RP 23A.
Rea, V. (2003) Modifying roadside vegetation management practices to reduce vehicular collisions with moose, Alces alces. Wildlife Biology 9, 81–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, D.F., Pojar, T.M. and Woodard, T.N. (1974) Use of one-way gates by mule deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 38, 9–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, D.F., Woodard, T.N. and Pojar, T.M. (1975) Behavioral response of mule deer to a highway underpass. Journal of Wildlife Management 39, 361–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, D.F., Beck, T.D.I. and Woodard, T.N. (1982) Methods of reducing deer-vehicle accidents: benefit-cost analysis. Wildlife Society Bulletin 10, 349–54.Google Scholar
Reeve, A.F. and Anderson, S.H. (1993) Ineffectiveness of Swareflex reflectors at reducing deer-vehicle collisions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21, 127–132.Google Scholar
Roedenbeck, I.A., Fahrig, L., Findlay, C.S., et al. (2007) The Rauischholzhausen agenda for road ecology. Ecology and Society 12, 11. Online www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art11/CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romin, L.A. and Bissonette, J.A. (1996) Deer-vehicle collisions: status of state monitoring activities and mitigation efforts. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24, 276–283.Google Scholar
Romin, L.A. and Dalton, L.B. (1992) Lack of response by mule deer to wildlife warning whistles. Wildlife Society Bulletin 20, 382–384.Google Scholar
Rondeau, D. and Conrad, J.M. (2003) Managing urban deer. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 85, 266–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutberg, A.T. and Naugle, R.E. (2008) Deer-vehicle collision trends at a suburban immunocontraception site. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2, 60–67.Google Scholar
Ruusila, V. and Kojola, I. (2010) Ungulates and their management in Finland. In Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. and Putman, R. (eds.) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–102.Google Scholar
Sanders, W. (1985) Fallow deer: a study of the possible factors influencing the annual cycle of road casualties. HND dissertation, Seal Hayne College, UK.Google Scholar
Schafer, J.A. and Penland, S.T. (1985) Effectiveness of Swareflex reflectors in reducing deer-vehicle accidents. Journal of Wildlife Management 49, 774–776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheifele, P.M., Browning, D.G. and Scheifele, L.M. (1998) Measurement of several types of ‘deer whistles’ for motor vehicles: frequencies, levels, and animal threshold responses. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 104(3), 1811.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheifele, P.M., Browning, D.G. and Scheifele, L.M. (2003) Analysis and effectiveness of ‘deer whistles’ for motor vehicles: frequencies, levels, and animal threshold responses. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America ARLO 4, 13.Google Scholar
Schober, F, and Sommer, F. (1984) Untersuchungen akustischer Wildwarngeräten für Kraftfahrzeuge. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft 30, 164–176.Google Scholar
Schwabe, K.A., Schuhmann, P.W. and Tonkovich, M. (2002) A dynamic exercise in reducing deer-vehicle collisions: management through vehicle mitigation techniques and hunting. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 27, 261–280.Google Scholar
Seiler, A. (2004) Trends and spatial pattern in ungulate-vehicle collisions in Sweden. Wildlife Biology 10, 301–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,SETRA (1998) Collisions véhicules-grands mammifères sauvages: évolutions des inventaires de 1984–1986 et 1993–1994. Note d'information 60. Bagneux, France: Service d'Etudes Techniques des Routes et Autoroutes/Ministère de l'Environnement.Google Scholar
,SGS Environment (1998) The Prevention of Wildlife Casualties on Roads through the Use of Deterrents: Prevention of Casualties among Deer Populations. Report to UK Highways Agency SW335/V3/11–98. Ellesmere Port, UK: SGS UK Ltd.Google Scholar
Sheets, R. and Cason, T. (2005) What deer see and hear. Research Magazine. Athens. GA: University of Georgia.Google Scholar
Staines, B.W., Langbein, J. and Putman, R.J. (2001) Road Traffic Accidents and Deer in Scotland. Report to the Deer Commission, Scotland.Google Scholar
Stanley, L., Hardy, A. and Lassacher, S. (2006) Responses to enhanced wildlife advisories in a simulated environment. Transportation Research Record 1980, 126–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sudharsan, K., Riley, S.J. and Winerstein, S.R. (2006) Relationships of autumn hunting season to the frequency of deer–vehicle collisions in Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 70, 1161–1164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, T.A., Williams, A.F., Messmer, T.A., Hellinga, L.A. and Kyrychenko, S.Y. (2004) Effectiveness of temporary warning signs in reducing deer–vehicle collisions during mule deer migrations. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32, 907–915.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ückermann, E. (1964) Erhebung uber die Wildverluste durch den Strassenverkehr und die Verkehrsunfälle durch Wild. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft 10, 142–168.Google Scholar
Ückermann, E. (1983) Die Auswirkung der Wildverluste durch den Stassenverkehr auf die Nutzungsfähigkeit der Reviere. Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft, 29, 264–265.Google Scholar
Ujvari, M., Baagoe, H.J. and Madsen, A.B. (1998) Effectiveness of wildlife warning reflectors in reducing deer-vehicle collisions: a behavioral study. Journal of Wildlife Management 62, 1094–1099.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wieren, S.E. and Groot Bruinderink, G.W.T.A. (2010) Ungulates and their management in the Netherlands. In Apollonio, M., Andersen, R. and Putman, R. (eds.) European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 165–183.Google Scholar
VerCauteren, K.C. and Pipas, M.J. (2003) A review of the color vision in white tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31(3), 684–691.Google Scholar
VerCauteren, K.C., Gilsdorf, J.M., Hygnstrom, S.E., et al. (2006) Green and blue lasers are ineffective for dispersing deer at night. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34, 371–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Völk, F, Glitzner, I. and Wöss, M. (2001) Kostenreduktion bei Grünbrücken durch deren rationellen Einsatz. Kriterien – Indikatoren – Mindesstandards. Schriftenreihe des Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Innovation, Technologie u. Stassenforschung, Vienna 513, 112 pp.Google Scholar
Voss, H. (2007) Unfallhäufungen mit Wildunfällen – Modellversuche im Oberbergischen Kreis. [In German] Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. Berlin: Unfallforschung der Versicherer.Google Scholar
Ward, A.L. (1982) Mule deer behavior in relation to fencing and underpasses on Interstate 80 in Wyoming. Transportation Research Record 859, 8–13.Google Scholar
Waring, G.H., Griffis, J.L. and Vaughn, M.E. (1991) White-tailed deer roadside behavior, wildlife warning reflectors and highway mortality. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 29, 215–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witmer, G.W. and Calesta, D.S. (1992) The need and difficulty of bringing the Pennsylvania deer herd under control. Proceedings of the Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference, 5, 130–137.Google Scholar
Woodard, T.N., Reed, D.F. and Pojar, T.M. (1973) Effectiveness of Swareflex wildlife warning reflectors in reducing deer-vehicle accidents. Internal Report. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Fort Collins, Colorado.Google Scholar
Wu, E. (1998) Economic analysis of deer-vehicle collisions in Ohio. In Proceedings of International Conference on Wildlife Ecology and Transportation, held Fort Myers, Florida. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration, pp. 43–52.Google Scholar
Zacks, J.L. (1986) Do White-tailed Deer Avoid Red: An Evaluation of the Premise Underlying the Design of Swareflex Wildlife Reflectors. Transportation Research Record 1025. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board, National Research Council.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×