Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-7sgmh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-18T06:01:45.965Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Alexia and agraphia in acute and chronic stroke

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 October 2009

By
Argye E. Hillis
Edited by
Olivier Godefroy  and
Julien Bogousslavsky
Argye E. Hillis
Affiliation:
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Olivier Godefroy
Affiliation:
Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens
Julien Bogousslavsky
Affiliation:
Université de Lausanne, Switzerland
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Reading and writing are increasingly important in society. More transactions and communications take place over the internet each day. Stroke or other focal brain injuries can selectively impair reading and/or writing, causing important deficits in these daily interactions. Although not immediately apparent on the traditional neurological examination, alexia and agraphia can be disabling and dehumanizing. Furthermore, these deficits may be the only functional sequel of certain types of stroke, such as posterior watershed infarct, embolism to the left posterior parietal cortex, or occlusion of the left posterior cerebral artery. Therefore, assessment of reading and writing is an essential component of a complete neurological examination in cases of suspected stroke.

Presentations of disordered reading and writing

Reading and spelling are complex tasks with a number of processing components, each of which can be individually impaired by focal brain lesions. It is possible to determine the component of the task that is disrupted by evaluating performance across a variety of tasks and by considering the types of error made by the patient.

In order to read a printed word, the sequence of letters must first be seen and attended to. This early visual processing involves computation of a sequence of increasingly abstract spatial representations of the visual stimulus. In this process, specific letter shapes must be converted to graphemes (abstract letter identities), so that the word chair written in lower-case script in the left-hand corner of the page is recognized as the same word as the stimulus CHAIR written in upper-case block letters at the bottom of the page.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology of Stroke , pp. 102 - 125
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Anderson, S. W., Damasio, A. R. and Damasio, H. (1990). Troubled letters but not numbers: Domain specific cognitive impairments following focal damage in frontal cortex. Brain, 113, 749–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arguin, M. and Bub, D. N. (1993). Evidence for an independent stimulus-centered spatial reference frame from a case of visual hemineglect. Cortex, 29, 349–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbut, D. and Gazzaniga, M. S. (1987). Disturbances in conceptual space involve language and speech. Brain, 110, 1487–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baxter, D. M. and Warrington, E. K. (1983). Neglect dysgraphia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 46, 1073–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beauvois, M. F. and Derousne, J. (1981). Lexical or orthographic agraphia. Brain, 104, 21–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beeson, P. M. (1998). Treatment for letter-by-letter reading: A case study. In Helm-Estabrooks, N. and Holland, A. L., eds., Approaches to the Treatment of Aphasia. San Diego, CA: Singular, pp. 153–77.Google Scholar
Beeson, P. M. (1999). Treating acquired writing impairment. Aphasiology, 13, 367–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beeson, P. M. and Hillis, A. E. (2001). Comprehension and production of written words. In Chapey, R., ed., Language Intervention Strategies in Aphasia and Related Neurogenic Communication Disorders, (4th edition). Baltimore: Williams and Wilkens, pp. 572–604.Google Scholar
Beeson, P. M. and Insalaco, D. (1998). Acquired alexia: Lessons from successful treatment. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc., 4, 621–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beeson, P. M. and Rapcsak, S. Z. (2002). Clinical diagnosis and treatment of spelling disorders. In Hillis, A. E., ed., The Handbook of Adult Language Disorders: Integrating Cognitive Neuropsychology, Neurology and Rehabilitation. New York: Psychology Press, pp. 101–20.Google Scholar
Beeson, P. M., Rapcsak, S. Z., Plante, E., et al. (2003). The neural substrates of writing: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Aphasiology, 17, 647–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrmann, M. and Bub, D. (1992). Surface dyslexia and dysgraphia: Dual routes, single lexicon. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 9, 209–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, D. F. (1979). Aphasia, Alexia, and Agraphia. New York: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Binder, J. R. and Mohr, J. P. (1992). The topography of callosal reading pathways. A case-control analysis. Brain, 115, 1807–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, S. and Behrmann, M. (1994). Localization in alexia. In Kertesz, A., ed., Localization and Neuroimaging in Neuropsychology. San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Black, S. E., Behrmann, M., Bass, K. and Hacker, P. (1989). Selective writing impairment: Beyond the allographic code. Aphasiology, 3, 265–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bub, D. and Kertesz, A. (1982). Deep agraphia. Brain Lang., 17, 146–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byng, S. and Coltheart, M. (1986). Aphasia therapy research: Methodological requirements and illustrative results. In Hjelmquist, E. and Nilsson, L.-G., eds., Communication Handicap: Aspects of Psychological Compensation and Technical Aids, North-Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.Google Scholar
Caramazza, A. and Hillis, A. E. (1990). Where do semantic errors come from?Cortex, 26, 95–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caramazza, A. and Hillis, A. E. (1990a). Spatial representation of words in the brain implied by studies of a unilateral neglect patient. Nature, 346, 267–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caramazza, A. and Hillis, A. E. (1990b). Levels of representation, coordinate frames, and unilateral neglect. In Riddoch, M. J., ed., Neglect and the Peripheral Dyslexias, Special Issue of Cognitive Neuropsychology, 391–445.Google Scholar
Caramazza, A., Miceli, G., Villa, G. and Romani, C. (1987). The role of the graphemic buffer in spelling: Evidence from a case of acquired dysgraphia. Cognition, 26, 59–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlomagno, S., Iavarone, A. and Colombo, A. (1994). Cognitive approaches to writing rehabilitation. In Riddoch, M. J. and Humphreys, G., eds., Cognitive Neuropsychology and Cognitive Rehabilitation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 485–502.Google Scholar
Chialant, D. and Caramazza, A. (1998). Perceptual and lexical factors in a case of letter-by-letter reading. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 15, 167–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, L. and Dehaene, S. (2004). Specialization within the ventral stream: The case for the visual word form area. NeuroImage, 22, 466–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., et al. (2000). The visual word form area: Spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain, 123, 291–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, L., Henry, C., Dehaene, S., et al. (2004). The pathophysiology of letter-by-letter reading. Neuropsychologia, 42(13), 1768–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, L., Lehericy, S., Chochon, F., et al. (2002). Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area. Brain, 125, 1054–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, L., Martinaud, O., Lemer, C., et al. (2003). Visual word recognition in the left and right hemispheres: anatomical and functional correlates of peripheral alexias. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 1313–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coltheart, M., Patterson, K. and Marshall, J. C. (1980). Deep Dyslexia. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Croquelois, A., Wintermark, M., Reichhart, M., Meuli, R. and Bogousslavsky, J. (2003). Aphasia in hyperacute stroke: Language follows brain penumbra dynamics. Ann. Neurol., 54(3), 321–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, A. R. and Damasio, H. (1986). Hemianopia, hemiachromatopsia and the mechanisms of alexia. Cortex, 22, 161–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Partz, M. P. (1986). Re-education of a deep dyslexic patient: Rationale of the method and results. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 3, 147–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dejerine, J. (1891). Sur un cas de cécité verbale avec agraphie, suivi d'autopsie. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances et Mémoires de la Société de Biologie, Ninth series, 3, 197–201.Google Scholar
Dejerine, J. (1892). Contribution à l'étude anatomo-pathologique et clinique des différentes variétés de cécité verbale. Memoires Societe Biologique, 4, 61–90.Google Scholar
Ellis, A. W., Flude, B. M. and Young, A. W. (1987a). “Neglect Dyslexia” and the early visual processing of letters in words and nonwords, Cogn. Neuropsychol., 4, 439–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, A. W., Flude, B. M. and Young, A. W. (1987b). “Afferent Dysgraphia” in a patient and normal subjects. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 4, 465–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Exner, S. (1881). Lokalisation des Funcktion der Grosshirnrinde des Menschen, Wein: Braunmuller.Google Scholar
Foundas, A., Daniels, S. K. and Vasterling, J. J. (1998). Anomia: Case studies with localization. Neurocase, 4, 35–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, R. (2002). Clinical diagnosis and treatment of reading disorders. In Hillis, A. E. (ed.) Handbook of Adult Language Disorders: Integrating Cognitive Neuropsychology, Neurology, and Rehabilitation, Philadelphia: Psychology Press, pp. 27–43.Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1965). Disconnection syndromes in animals and man. Brain, 88, 237–94, 585–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodglass, H. and Budin, C. (1988). Category and modality specific dissociations in word comprehension and concurrent phonological dyslexia, Neuropsychologia, 26, 67–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodglass, H., Kaplan, E. and Barresi, B. (2001). Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination 3. Austin, Tx: Pro-Ed.
Goodman, R. A. and Caramazza, A. (1986). Phonologically plausible errors: Implications for a model of the phoneme-grapheme conversion mechanism in the spelling process. In Augst, G., ed., Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Graphemics and Orthography, pp. 300–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatfield, F. M. and Patterson, K. (1983). Phonological spelling. Q. J. Exp. Psychol., 35a, 451–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haywood, M. and Coltheart, M. (2000). Neglect dyslexia and the early stages of visual word recognition. Neurocase, 6, 33–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. (1991). Effects of separate treatments for distinct impairments within the naming process. In Prescott, T., ed., Clinical Aphasiology, Vol. 19. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed, pp. 255–65.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. (1992). Facilitating written language. In Peach, R., ed., Clinics in Communication Disorders: Approaches to Treatment of Aphasia, pp. 19–33.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. (1993). The role of models of language processing in rehabilitation of language impairments. Aphasiology, 7, 5–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. (1994). Contributions from cognitive analysis. In Chapey, R.,ed., Language Intervention Strategies in Adult Aphasia. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkens, pp. 207–19.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. (2003). Alexia. In Kent, R.,ed., MIT Encyclopedia of Communication Disorders. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 236–40.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1990). The effects of attentional deficits on reading and spelling. In Caramazza, A., ed., Cognitive Neuropsychology and Neurolinguistics: Advances in Models of Cognitive Function and Impairment. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 211–75.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1991a). Spatially-specific deficit to stimulus-centered letter shape representations in a case of “unilateral neglect.”Neuropsychologia, 29, 1223–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1991b). Mechanisms for accessing lexical representations for output: Evidence from a category-specific semantic deficit. Brain Lang., 40, 106–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1994). Theories of lexical processing and theories of rehabilitation. In Humphreys, G. and Riddoch, M. J., eds., Cognitive Neuropsychology and Cognitive Rehabilitation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 449–82.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1995a). A framework for interpreting distinct patterns of hemispatial neglect. Neurocase, 1, 189–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1995b). Spatially-specific deficits in processing graphemic representations in reading and writing. Brain Lang., 48, 263–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1995c). Converging evidence for the interaction of semantic and phonological information in accessing lexical information for spoken output. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 12, 187–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Caramazza, A. (1995d). I know it but I can't write it: Selective deficits in long and short-term memory. In Campbell, R.,ed., Broken Memories: Neuropsychological Case Studies, London: Blackwell, pp. 344–65.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Chang, S. and Breese, E. (2003). The crucial role of posterior frontal regions in modality specific components of the spelling process. Neurocase.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Heidler, J. (2003). Contributions and limitations of the “Cognitive Neuropsychological approach” to treatment: Illustrations from studies of reading and spelling therapy. Aphasiology.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Kane, A., Barker, P., Beauchamp, N. and Wityk, R. (2001a). Neural substrates of the cognitive processes underlying reading: Evidence from Magnetic Resonance Perfusion Imaging in hyperacute stroke. Aphasiology, 15, 919–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Kane, A., Tuffiash, E., et al. (2002). Neural substrates of the cognitive processes underlying spelling: Evidence from MR diffusion and perfusion imaging. Aphasiology, 16, 425–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Newhart, M., Heidler, J., Barker, P. B. and Degaonkar, M. (2005). Anatomy of spatial attention: insights from perfusion imaging and hemispatial neglect in acute stroke. J. Neurosci., 25, 3161–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hillis, A. E., Newhart, M., Heidler, J., et al. (2005b). The roles of the “visual word form area” in reading. NeuroImage, 24, 548–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Newhart, M., Heidler, J., et al. (2005a). The neglected role of the right hemisphere in spatial representation of words for reading. Aphasiology, 19, 225–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E. and Rapp, B. S. (2004). Cognitive and neural substrates of written language comprehension and production. In Gazzaniga, M., ed., The New Cognitive Neurosciences (3rd Edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 755–88.Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Rapp, B., Benzing, L. and Caramazza, A. (1998). Dissociable coordinate frames of unilateral spatial neglect: Viewer-centered neglect. Brain Cogn., 37, 491–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hillis, A. E., Rapp, B. C. and Caramazza, A. (1999). When a rose is a rose in speaking but a tulip in writing. Cortex, 35, 337–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Wityk, R., Barker, P. B. and Caramazza, A. (2003). Neural regions essential for writing verbs. Nature Neurosci., 6, 19–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hillis, A. E., Wityk, R. J., Tuffiash, E., et al. (2001b). Hypoperfusion of Wernicke's area predicts severity of semantic deficit in acute stroke. Ann. Neurol., 50, 561–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillis, A. E., Work, M., Breese, E. L., et al. (2004). Re-examining the brain regions crucial for orchestrating speech articulation. Brain, 127, 1479–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horwitz, B., Rumsey, J. M. and Donohue, B. C. (1998). Functional connectivity of the angular gyrus in normal reading and dyslexia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 8939–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber, W., Poeck, K. and Willmes, K. (1984). The Aachen Aphasia Test. Adv. Neurol., 42, 291–303.Google ScholarPubMed
Joubert, S., Beauregard, M., Walter, N., et al. (2004). Neural correlates of lexical and sublexical processes in reading. Brain Lang., 89, 9–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kawahata, N., Nagata, K. and Shishido, F. (1988). Alexia with agraphia due to the left posterior inferior temporal lobe lesion: Neuropsychological analysis and its pathogenetic mechanisms. Brain Lang., 33, 296–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, J., Lesser, R. and coltheart, M. (1992). Psycholinguistic Assessments of Language Processing in Aphasia (PALPA). East Sussex, England: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kinsbourne, M. and Rosenfield, D. B. (1974). Agraphia selective for written spelling. Brain Lang., 1, 215–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kertesz, A. (1982). The Western Aphasia Battery. San Antonio: Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Lapoint, L. L. and Horner, J. (1998). Reading Comprehension Battery for Aphasia (2nd edition). Austin, Tx: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
Love, T., Swinney, D., Wong, E. and Buxton, R. (2002). Perfusion imaging and stroke: A more sensitive measure of the brain bases of cognitive deficits. Aphasiology, 16, 873–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCandliss, B. D., Cohen, L. and Dehaene, S. (2003). The visual word form area: Expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus. Trends Cogn. Sci., 7, 293–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miozzo, M. and Caramazza, A. (1998). Varieties of pure alexia: The case of failure to access graphemic representations. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 15, 203–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moyer, S. B. (1979). Rehabilitation of alexia: A case study. Cortex, 15, 139–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nadeau, S. E., Gonzalez Rothi, L. J. and Crosson, B., (eds.) (2000). Aphasia and Language: Theory to Practice. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Nichelli, P., Venneri, A., Pentore, R. and Cubelli, R. (1993). Horizontal and vertical neglect dyslexia. Brain Lang., 44, 264–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nickels, L. (1992). The autocue? Self-generated phonemic cues in the treatment of a disorder of reading and naming. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 9, 155–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, K. E., Coltheart, M. and Marshall, J. C. (1985). Surface Dyslexia. London: LEA.Google Scholar
Patterson, K. E. and Kay, J. (1982). Letter-by-letter reading: Psychological descriptions of a neurological syndrome. Q. J. Exp. Psychol., 34A, 411–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, C. J. and Devlin, J. T. (2003). The myth of the visual word form area. NeuroImage, 19, 473–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, C. J. and Devlin, J. T. (2004). The pros and cons of labeling a left occipitotemporal region: “The visual word form area.”NeuroImage, 22, 477–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, C. J., Winterburn, D., Giraud, A. L., Moore, C. J. and Noppeney, U. (2003). Cortical localization of the visual and auditory word form areas: A reconsideration of the evidence. Brain Lang., 86, 272–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, C. J., Wise, R. J., Warburton, E. A., et al. (1996). Hearing and saying. The functional neuro-anatomy of auditory word processing. Brain, 119, 919–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puce, A., Allison, T., Asgari, M., Gore, J. C. and McCarthy, G. (1996). Differential sensitivity of human visual cortex to faces, letterstrings, and textures: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J. Neurosci., 16, 5205–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Jenner, A. R., et al. (2001). Neurobiological studies of reading and reading disability. J. Commun. Disord., 34, 479–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapcsak, S. Z. and Beeson, P. M. (2002). Neuroanatomical correlates of spelling and writing. In Hillis, A. E., ed., Handbook of Adult Language Disorders: Integrating Cognitive Neuropsychology, Neurology, and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia: Psychology Press, pp. 71–99.Google Scholar
Rapcsak, S. Z. and Beeson, P. M. (2004). The role of posterior inferior temporal cortex in spelling. Neurology, 62, 2221–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapcsak, S. Z., Rubens, A. B. and Laguna, J. F. (1990). From letters to words: Procedures for word recognition in letter-by-letter reading. Brain Lang., 38, 504–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapp, B. C. and Caramazza, A. (1997). From graphemes to abstract letter shapes: Levels of representation in written spelling. J. Exp. Psychol. [Hum. Percept.], 23, 1130–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raymer, A., Foundas, A. L., Maher, L. M., et al. (1997). Cognitive neuropsychological analysis and neuroanatomical correlates in a case of acute anomia. Brain Lang., 58, 137–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddoch, M. J., Humphreys, G. W., Cleton, P. and Fery, P. (1990). Levels of coding in neglect dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 7, 479–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roeltgen, D. P. and Heilman, K. M. (1984). Lexical agraphia: Further support for the two strategy hypotheses of linguistic agraphia. Brain, 107, 811–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothi, L. J. and Heilman, K. M. (1981). Alexia and agraphia with spared spelling and letter recognition abilities. Brain Lang., 12(1), 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothi, L. J. G. and Moss, S. (1992). Alexia without agraphia: Potential for model-assisted therapy. Clin. Commun. Disord., 2, 11–18.Google Scholar
Saffran, E. M. and Coslett, H. B. (1998). Implicit vs. letter-by-letter reading in pure alexia: A tale of two systems. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 15, 141–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sakurai, Y., Sakai, K., Sakuta, M. and Iwata, M. (1994). Naming difficulties in alexia with agraphia for kanji after a left posterior inferior temporal lesion. J. Neurol., Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 57, 609–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seki, K., Yajima, M. and Sugishita, M. (1995). The effect of kinesthetic reading treatment for pure alexia. Neuropsychologia, 33, 595–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shallice, T. (1988). From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Small, S. (2002). Biological approaches to the treatment of aphasia. In Hillis, A. E., ed., The Handbook of Adult Language Disorders: Integrating Cognitive Neuropsychology, Neurology and Rehabilitation. New York: Psychology Press, pp. 397–411.Google Scholar
Soma, Y., Sugishita, M., Kitamura, K., Maruyama, S. and Imanaga, H. (1989). Lexical agraphia in the Japanese language. Pure agraphia for Kanji due to left posteroinferior temporal lesions, Brain, 112, 1549–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Subbiah, I. and Caramazza, A. (2000). Stimulus-centered neglect in reading and object recognition. Neurocase, 6, 13–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanier, M. and Caplan, D. (1985). CT correlates of surface dyslexia. In Patterson, K. E., Marshall, J. C. and Coltheart, M., eds., Surface Dyslexia: Neuropsychological and Cognitive Studies of Phonological Reading. London: Laurence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. (1991). Right neglect dyslexia: A single case study. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 8, 191–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, A. W., Newcombe, F. and Ellis, A. W. (1991). Different impairments contribute to neglect dyslexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol., 8, 177–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zangwill, O. L. (1954). Agraphia due to a left parietal glioma in a left-handed man. Brain, 77, 510–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×