Networks and Multimodalities underlying Language Processing in the Brain

doi:10.1017/9781009202336.005

3 - Networks and Multimodalities underlying Language Processing in the Brain

Evidence from Structural and Functional Neuroimaging

from Part II - Neuroimaging Studies of Brain and Language

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 December 2025

Edna Andrews ,

Charlotte Sophia Rammell and

Hayes Bierman

Edited by

Edna Andrews and

Swathi Kiran

Show author details

Edna Andrews: Affiliation:
Duke University, North Carolina
Swathi Kiran: Affiliation:
Boston University

Book contents

Get access

Summary

The emergence of robust accessibility to functional neuroimaging in the late 1990s and early 2000s provided a new way to study language processing in the human brain, the most common techniques being PET and fMRI studies. Prior to this moment, neural language mappings were tied to invasive procedures in surgery and pathology, where CSM (cortical stimulation mapping) was one of the primary sources of data. Reframing approaches to understanding language processing in the brain allowed for closer ties between the cognitive neurosciences and linguistic theory, as well as new perspectives of multimodalities, resting state functional connectivity, and embodied cognition. Here we explore the range of outcomes in functional and structural neuroimaging studies focusing on language processing in the brain, including studies of bi- and multilingualism. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some of the central challenges in neuroimaging studies of language(s), including software and inter-method discrepancies, protocol design, proficiency measurements, and ecological validity.

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: The Cambridge Handbook of Language and Brain , pp. 47 - 67

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009202336.005 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abutalebi, J. (2008). Neural processing of second language representation and control. Acta Psychologica, 128, 466–478.10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.03.014CrossRef Google Scholar

Abutalebi, J., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., & Weekes, B. S. (2015). The neuroprotective effects of bilingualism upon the inferior parietal lobule: A structural neuroimaging study in aging Chinese bilinguals. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 33, 3–13.10.1016/j.jneuroling.2014.09.008CrossRef Google Scholar

Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Ding, G., Weekes, B., Costa, A., & Green, D. W. (2013). Language proficiency modulates the engagement of cognitive control areas in multilinguals. Cortex, 49, 905–911.10.1016/j.cortex.2012.08.018CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., Hernandez, M., Scifo, P., Keim, R., et al. (2012). Bilingualism tunes the anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring. Cerebral Cortex, 22(9), 2076–2086.10.1093/cercor/bhr287CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 242–275.10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.10.003CrossRef Google Scholar

Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. W. (2016). Neuroimaging of language control in bilinguals: Neural adaptation and reserve. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(4): 689–698.10.1017/S1366728916000225CrossRef Google Scholar

Abutalebi, J., Guidi, L., Borsa, V., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P.A., Parris, B.A., & Weekes, B.S. (2015). Bilingualism provides a neural reserve for aging populations. Neuropsychologia, 69, 201–201.10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.01.040CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Abutalebi, J., Tettamanti, M., & Perani, D. (2009). The bilingual brain: Linguistic and non-linguistic skills. Brain and Language, 109, 51–54.10.1016/j.bandl.2009.04.001CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Anderson, J. A. E., Grundy, J. G., De Frutos, J., Barker, R. M., Grady, C., & Bialystok, E. (2018). Effects of bilingualism on white matter integrity in older adults. Neuroimage, 167, 143–150.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.038CrossRef Google Scholar

Andrews, E. (2011). Language and brain: Recasting meaning in the definition of human language. Semiotica, 184(1/4), 11–32.Google Scholar

Andrews, E. (2014). Neuroscience and Multilingualism. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139567770CrossRef Google Scholar

Andrews, E., Eierud, C., Banks, D., Harshbarger, T., Michael, A., & Rammell, C. (2021). Effects of lifelong musicianship on white matter integrity and cognitive brain reserve. Brain Sci, 11, 67.10.3390/brainsci11010067CrossRef Google Scholar

Andrews, E., Eierud, C., Banks, D., Harshbarger, T., Michael, A., & Rammell, C. (2023). DTI analysis of white matter integrity and cognitive brain reserve in lifelong musicians and controls. J Psychiatry Psychiatric Disord, 7(2), 67–79.10.26502/jppd.2572-519X0187CrossRef Google Scholar

Andrews, E., Frigau, L., Voyvodic‐Casabo, C., Voyvodic, J., & Wright, J. (2013). Multilingualism and fMRI: Longitudinal study of second language acquisition. Brain Sciences, 3(2), 849–876.10.3390/brainsci3020849CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Andrews, E., Harshbarger, T., & Rammell, C. S. (2019). Multilingual listening and reading: An fMRI study of Russian/English and Spanish/English bilinguals. Glossos, 14.Google Scholar

Ben Shalom, D., & D. Poeppel, D. (2008). Functional anatomic models of language: Assembling the pieces. The Neuroscientist, 14(1), 119–127.10.1177/1073858407305726CrossRef Google Scholar

Bhatia, Tej K., & Ritchie, W. C. (2006). The Handbook of Bilingualism. Blackwell Publishing.10.1002/9780470756997CrossRef Google Scholar

Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I.M., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45, 459–464.10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Binder, J. R., Frost, J. A., Hammeke, T. A., Cox, R. W., Rao, S. M., & Prieto, T. (1997). Human brain language areas identified by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 353–362.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-01-00353.1997CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant, L. L. (2009). Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex, 19(12), 2767–2796.10.1093/cercor/bhp055CrossRef Google Scholar

Binder, J. R., & Price, C. J. (2001). Functional neuroimaging of language. In Cabeza, R. & Kingstone, A. (Eds.), Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition (pp. 187–251). MIT Press.Google Scholar

Billiet, T., Vandenbulcke, M., Madler, B., et al. (2015). Age-related microstructural differences quantified using myelin water imaging and advanced diffusion MRI. Neurobiology of Aging, 36, 2107–2121.10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.02.029CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56, 9–49.10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00353.xCrossRef Google Scholar

Bolinger, D. (1949/1965). The sign is not arbitrary. Reprinted in Bolinger, D., Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Edited by Abe, Isamu and Kanekiyo, Tetsuya. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Bolinger, D. (1986). Intonation and Its Parts: Melody in Spoken English. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Bolinger, D. (1989). Intonation and Its Uses: Melody in Grammar and Discourse. Stanford University Press.10.1515/9781503623125CrossRef Google Scholar

Bookheimer, S. (2002). Function MRI of language: New approaches to understanding the cortical organization of semantic processing. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25, 151–188.10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142946CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Buchel, C., Price, C., & Friston, K. (1998). A multimodal language region in the ventral visual pathway. Nature, 394, 274–277.10.1038/28389CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cabeza, R., & Kingstone, A. (Eds.) (2001). Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition (pp. 27–48). MIT Press.Google Scholar

Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–47.10.1162/08989290051137585CrossRef Google Scholar

Calvin, W. H., & Ojemann, G. A. (1994). Conversations with Neil’s Brain: The Neural Nature of Thought and Language. Addison-Wesley/Harper & Row.Google Scholar

Cargnelutti, E., Tomasino, B., & Fabbro, F. (2019). Language brain representation in bilinguals with different age of appropriation and proficiency of the second language: A meta-analysis of functional imaging studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 154.10.3389/fnhum.2019.00154CrossRef Google Scholar

Coggins, P. E., Kennedy, T. J., & Armstrong, T. A. (2004). Bilingual corpus callosum variability. Brain Lang., 89, 69–75.10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00299-2CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Corina, D. P., Loudermilk, B. C., Detwiler, L., Martin, R. F., Brinkley, J. F., & Ojemann, G. A. (2010). Analysis of naming erros during cortical stimulation mapping: Implications for models of language representation. Brain and Language, 115, 101–112.10.1016/j.bandl.2010.04.001CrossRef Google Scholar

Cox, R. (2019). Equitable thresholding and clustering: A novel method for fMRI clustering in AFNI. Brain Connectivity, 9(7).10.1089/brain.2019.0666CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Craik, F. I., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726–1729.10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1cCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

de Bot, K. (2006). The plastic bilingual brain: Synaptic pruning or growth? Commentary on Green et al. In Gullberg, M. & Indefrey, P. (Eds.), The Cognitive Neuroscience of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 127–132). Blackwell.Google Scholar

de Bot, K. (2008). The imaging of what in the bilingual mind? Second Language Research, 24(1), 111–133.10.1177/0267658307083034CrossRef Google Scholar

de Bot, K. (2009). Multilingualism and aging. In Ritchie, W. C. & Bhatia, Tej K. (Eds.), The New Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 425–442). Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.Google Scholar

Donald, M. (2004). The definition of human nature. In Rees, D. & Rose, S. (Eds.), The New Brain Sciences: Perils and Prospects (pp. 34–58). Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511541698.003CrossRef Google Scholar

Eierud, C., Michael, A., Banks, D., & Andrews, E. (2023). Resting-state functional connectivity in lifelong musicians. Psychoradiology, 3, 1–8.10.1093/psyrad/kkad003CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Eklund, A., Nichols, T. E., & Knutsson, H. (2016). Cluster failure: Why fMRI inferences for spatial extent have inflated false-positive rates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(28), 7900–7905.10.1073/pnas.1602413113CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Grefkes, C., Wang, L. E., Zilles, K., & Fox, P.T. (2009). Coordinate-based activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis of neuroimaging data: A random-effects approach based on empirical estimates of spatial uncertainty. Human Brain Mapping, 30(9), 2907–2926.10.1002/hbm.20718CrossRef Google Scholar

ETS. (2007). The Official Guide to the New TOEFL IBT (3rd edition). McGraw Hill.Google Scholar

Fabbro, F. (1999). The Neurolinguistics of Bilingualism: An Introduction. Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Fabbro, F. (2001). The bilingual brain: Cerebral representation of languages. Brain and Language,79(2), 211–222.10.1006/brln.2001.2481CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Felton, A., Vazquez, D., Ramos-Nunez, A. I., Greene, M. R., Macbeth, A., Hernandez, A. E., & Chiarello, C. (2017). Bilingualism influences structural indices of interhemispheric organization. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 2017(42), 1–11.10.1016/j.jneuroling.2016.10.004CrossRef Google Scholar

Friederici, A. D. (1998). The neurobiology of language comprehension. In Friederici, A. D. (Ed.), Language Comprehension: A Biological Perspective (pp. 263–301). Springer.10.1007/978-3-642-97734-3_9CrossRef Google Scholar

Gallese, V., & Lakoff, G. (2005). The brain’s concepts: The role of the sensory-motor system in conceptual knowledge. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22(3/4), 455–479.10.1080/02643290442000310CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Giorgio, A., Santelli, L., Tomassini, V., Bosnell, R., Smith, S., De Stefano, N., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2010). Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage, 51(3), 943–951.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.004CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Grundy, J. G., Anderson, J. A. E., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Neural correlates of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1396(1), 183–201.10.1111/nyas.13333CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Guzmán-Vélez, E., & Tranel, D. (2015). Does bilingualism contribute to cognitive reserve? Cognitive and neural perspectives. Neuropsychology, 29, 139–150.10.1037/neu0000105CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hernandez, A. (2009). Language switching in the bilingual brain: What’s next?Brain and Language, 109, 133–140.10.1016/j.bandl.2008.12.005CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2004). Dorsal and ventral streams: A framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language. Cognition, 92, 67–99.10.1016/j.cognition.2003.10.011CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2007). The cortical organization of speech processing. Nature Reviews, 8, 393–402.10.1038/nrn2113CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hodgson, V. J., Ralph, M. A. L., & Jackson, R. L. (2021). Multiple dimensions underlying the functional organization of the language network. NeuroImage, 241, 118444.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118444CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Humphreys, G. F., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2015). Fusion and fission of cognitive functions in the human parietal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 25(10), 3547–3560.10.1093/cercor/bhu198CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Instituto Cervantes. (n.d.). Preparar la prueba DELE. Retrieved from https://examenes.cervantes.es/es/dele/preparar-prueba Google Scholar

Jackson, R. L. (2021). The neural correlates of semantic control revisited. NeuroImage, 224, 117444.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117444CrossRef Google Scholar

Jakobson, R. (1985/1956). Metalanguage as a linguistic problem. In Rudy, S. (Ed.), Selected Writings VII (pp. 113–121). Mouton.Google Scholar

Jakobson, R. (1987/1957). Linguistics and poetics. In Pomorska, K. & Rudy, S. (Eds.), Language in Literature (pp. 62–94). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Jakobson, R. (1985/1967). Language and culture. In Rudy, S. (Ed.), Selected Writings VII (pp.101–111. Mouton.Google Scholar

Kotz, S. A. (2009). A critical review of ERP and fMRI evidence on L2 syntactic processing. Brain and Language, 109, 68–74.10.1016/j.bandl.2008.06.002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kotz, S. A., & Schwartze, M. (2010). Cortical speech processing unplugged: A timely subcortico-cortical framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(9), 392–399.10.1016/j.tics.2010.06.005CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Lieberman, P. (2006). Towards an Evolutionary Biology of Language. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Liu, H., & Cao, F. (2016). L1 and L2 processing in the bilingual brain: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Brain and Language, 159, 60–73.10.1016/j.bandl.2016.05.013CrossRef Google Scholar

Luk, G., Anderson, J. A., Craik, F. I., Grady, C., & Bialystok, E. (2010). Distinct neural correlates for two types of inhibition in bilinguals: Response inhibition versus interference suppression. Brain and Cognition, 74(3), 347–357.10.1016/j.bandc.2010.09.004CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Luk, G., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Grady, C. L. (2011). Lifelong bilingualism maintains white matter integrity in older adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 16808–16813.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Luo, H., & Poeppel, D. (2007). Phase patterns of neuronal responses reliably discriminate speech in human auditory cortex. Neuron, 54, 1001–1010.10.1016/j.neuron.2007.06.004CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2008). A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. Journal of Physiology, 102(1–3), 59–70.Google Scholar

Marek, S., Tervo-Clemmens, B., Calabro, F. J., Montez, D. F., Kay, B. P., Hatoum, A. S., et al. (2022). Reproducible brain-wide association studies require thousands of individuals. Nature, 603, 654–660.10.1038/s41586-022-04492-9CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

North, B. (2000). The Development of a Common Framework Scale of Language Proficiency. P. Lang.10.3726/978-1-4539-1059-7CrossRef Google Scholar

Ojemann, G. A. (1979). Individual variability in cortical localization of language. Brain and Language, 6, 239–260.10.1016/0093-934X(78)90061-5CrossRef Google Scholar

Ojemann, G. A. (1983). Brain organization for language from the perspective of electrical stimulation mapping. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(2), 189–206.10.1017/S0140525X00015491CrossRef Google Scholar

Ojemann, G. A. (1987). Surgical therapy for medically intractable epilepsy. Journal of Neurosurgery, 66(4), 489–499.10.3171/jns.1987.66.4.0489CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ojemann, G. A. (1991). Cortical organization of language. The Journal of Neuroscience, 11(8), 2281–2287.10.1523/JNEUROSCI.11-08-02281.1991CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ojemann, G. A. (1993). Functional mapping of cortical language areas in adults: Intraoperative approaches. Advances in Neurology, 63, 155–163.Google Scholar PubMed

Ojemann, G. A. (2003). The neurobiology of language and verbal memory: Observations from awake neurosurgery. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 48(2), 141–146.10.1016/S0167-8760(03)00051-5CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ojemann, G. A., Corina, D. P., Corrigan, N., Schoenfield-McNeill, J., Poliakov, A., Zamora, L., Zanos, S. (2010). Neuronal correlates of functional magnetic resonance imaging in human temporal cortex. Brain, 33(I), 46–59.10.1093/brain/awp227CrossRef Google Scholar

Ojemann, G. A., Ojemann, J., Lettich, E., & Berger, M. (1989). Cortical language localization in left, dominant hemisphere. Journal of Neurosurgery, 71(3), 316–326.10.3171/jns.1989.71.3.0316CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ojemann, G. A., & Whitaker, H. A. (1978). The bilingual brain. Archives of Neurology, 35(7), 409–412.10.1001/archneur.1978.00500310011002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Paradis, M. (2000). The neurolinguistics of bilingualism in the next decades. Brain and Language, 71, 178–180.10.1006/brln.1999.2245CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Paradis, M. (2004). A Neurolinguistic Theory of Bilingualism. John Benjamins.10.1075/sibil.18CrossRef Google Scholar

Peirce, C. S. (1931–1958). Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, 1–8. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Peirce, C. S. (1957). Essays in the Philosophy of Science. Liberal Arts Press.Google Scholar

Perani, D., Dehaene, S., Grassi, F., Cohen, L., Cappa, S. F., Dupoux, E., et al. (1996). Brain processing of native and foreign languages. Neuroreport, 7(15), 2439–2444.10.1097/00001756-199611040-00007CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Perani, D., Farsad, M., Ballarini, T., Lubian, F., Malpetti, M., Fracchetti, A., Magnani, G., March, A., & Abutalebi, J. (2017) The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer’s dementia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of USA, 114(7), 1690–1695.10.1073/pnas.1610909114CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Perani, D., Paulesu, E., Galles, N. S., Dupoux, E., Dehaene, S., Bettinardi, V., et al. (1998). The bilingual brain: Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language. Brain, 121, 1841–1852.10.1093/brain/121.10.1841CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Perani, D., Saccuman, M. C., Scifo, P., Anwander, A., Spada, D., Baldoli, C., et al. (2011). Neural language networks at birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(38), 16056–16061.10.1073/pnas.1102991108CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Multilingualism and brain plasticity. In Schwieter, J. W. & Paradis, M. (Eds.), The Handbook of the Neuroscience of Multilingualism (pp. 230–251). Wiley Publishers.10.1002/9781119387725.ch11CrossRef Google Scholar

Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The Dynamic Restructuring Model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 459–471.10.1017/S1366728919000130CrossRef Google Scholar

Pliatsikas, C. (2023). Bilingualism and brain structure: Insights from healthy ageing and progressive neurodenegerative disease. In Luk, G. et al. (Eds.), Understanding Language and Cognition through Bilingualism: In Honor of Ellen Bialystok (pp. 301–317). John Benjamins.10.1075/sibil.64.14pliCrossRef Google Scholar

Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., Moschopoulou, E. et al. (2017). Immersive bilingualism reshapes the core of the brain. Brain Structure and Function, 222, 1785–1795.10.1007/s00429-016-1307-9CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pliatsikas, C., Moschopoulou, E., & Saddy, J. D. (2015). The effects of bilingualism on the white matter structure of the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 1334–1337.10.1073/pnas.1414183112CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Poeppel, D. (1996). A critical review of PET studies of phonological processing. Brain and Language, 55(3), 317–351.10.1006/brln.1996.0108CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Poeppel, D. (2008). The cartographic imperative: Confusing localization and explanation in human brain mapping. In Bredekamp, H., Bruhn, M., & Werner, G. (Eds.), Bildwelten des Wissens (Ikonographie des Gehirns) (pp. 1–21) Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar

Poeppel, D., & Embick, D. (2005). Defining the relation between linguistics and neuroscience. In Cutler, A. (Ed.), Twenty-First Century Psycholinguistics (pp. 103–111). Four Cornerstones.Google Scholar

Poeppel, D., & Hickok, G. (2004). Towards a new functional anatomy of language. Cognition, 92, 1–12.10.1016/j.cognition.2003.11.001CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Price, C. J. (2000). The anatomy of language: Contributions from functional neuroimaging. Journal of Anatomy, 197, 335–359.10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19730335.xCrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Price, C. (2010). The anatomy of language: A review of 100 fMRI studies published in 2009. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191, 62–88.10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05444.xCrossRef Google Scholar

Raichle, M. (2001). Functional neuroimaging: A historical and physiological perspective. In Cabeza, R. & Kingstone, A. (Eds.), Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition (pp. 3–26). MIT Press.Google Scholar

Raichle, M. (2006). The brain’s dark energy. Science, 314, 1249–1250.Google Scholar PubMed

Raichle, M. (2010). Two views of brain function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(4), 180–190.10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.008CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Raichle, M. (2011). The restless brain. Brain Connectivity, 1, 3–12.10.1089/brain.2011.0019CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Raichle, M. (2015). The brain’s default mode network. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38, 433–447.10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014030CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Raichle, M. E., & Gusnard, D. A. (2005). Intrinsic brain activity sets the stage for expression of motivated behavior. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 493, 167–176.10.1002/cne.20752CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rammell, C. S., Cheng, H., Pisoni, D. B., & Newman, S. D. (2019). L2 speech perception in noise: An fMRI study of advanced Spanish learners. Brain Research, 1720, 146316.10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146316CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Rathee, R., Rallabandi, V. P., & Roy, P. K. (2016). Age-related differences in white matter integrity in healthy human brain: Evidence from structural MRI and diffusion tensor imaging. Magnetic Resonance Insights, 9, 9–20.10.4137/MRI.S39666CrossRef Google Scholar

Savan, D. (1980). Abduction and semiotics. In Rauch, I. & Carr, G. (Eds.), The Signifying Animal (pp. 252–262). Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Schirmer, A., Fox, P. M., & Grandjean, D. (2012). On the spatial organization of sound processing in the human temporal lobe: A meta-analysis. Neuroimage, 63(1), 137–147.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.025CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sebastian, R., Laird, A., & Kiran, S. (2011). Meta-analysis of the neural representation of first language and second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32(4), 799–819.10.1017/S0142716411000075CrossRef Google Scholar

Sobolev, O., & Nesterova, T. (2014). Oral communication in the framework of cognitive fluency: Developing and testing spoken Russian within the TORFL system. Language Learning in Higher Education: Journal of the European Confederation of Language Centres in Higher Education (CercleS),3(2), 271–282.Google Scholar

Stowe, L.A., Haverkort, M., & Zwarts, F. (2005). Rethinking the neurological basis of language. Lingua, 115, 997–1042.10.1016/j.lingua.2004.01.013CrossRef Google Scholar

Sulpizio, S., Del Maschio, N., Fedeli, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2020). Bilingual language processing: A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 108, 834–853.10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.014CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tagarelli, K. M., Shattuck, K. F., Turkeltaub, P. E., & Ullman, M. T. (2019). Language learning in the adult brain: A neuroanatomical meta-analysis of lexical and grammatical learning. Neuroimage, 193, 178–200.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.02.061CrossRef Google Scholar

Tang, Y., Nyengaard, J. R., Pakkenberg, B., & Gundersen, H. J. G. (1997). Age-induced white matter changes in the human brain: A stereological investigation. Neurobiology of Aging, 18(6), 609–615.10.1016/S0197-4580(97)00155-3CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Turkeltaub, P. E., Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., & Zeffiro, T. A. (2002). Meta‐analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single‐word reading: Method and validation. Neuroimage, 16, 765–780.10.1006/nimg.2002.1131CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Turkeltaub, P. E., Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Fox, M., Wiener, M., & Fox, P. (2012). Minimizing within-experiment and within-group effects in activation likelihood estimation meta-analyses. Human Brain Mapping, 33(1), 1–13.10.1002/hbm.21186CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and dementia: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36, 441–454.10.1017/S0033291705006264CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Vigneau, M., Beaucousin, V., Hervé, P. Y., Duffau, H., Crivello, F., Houde, O., et al. (2006). Meta-analyzing left hemisphere language areas: Phonology, semantics, and sentence processing. Neuroimage, 30(4), 1414–1432.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.002CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Vigneau, M., Beaucousin, V., Hervé, P. Y., Jobard, G., Petit, L., Crivello, F., et al. (2011). What is right-hemisphere contribution to phonological, lexico-semantic, and sentence processing? Insights from a meta-analysis. Neuroimage, 54(1), 577–593.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.036CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Westlye, L.T., Walhovd, K. B., Dale, A. M., Bjørnerud, A., Due-Tønnessen, A., Engvig, A., et al. (2010). Life-span changes of the human brain white matter: Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and volumetry. Cerebral Cortex, 20(9), 2055–2068.10.1093/cercor/bhp280CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zatorre, R. J. (1989). On the representation of multiple languages in the brain: Old problems and new directions. Brain and Language, 36(1), 127–147.10.1016/0093-934X(89)90056-4CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zatorre, R. J., Meyer, E., Gjedde, A., & Evans, A. C. (1996). PET studies of phonetic processing of speech: Review, replication, and reanalysis. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 21–30.10.1093/cercor/6.1.21CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zou, L., Guosheng, D., Abutalebi, J., Shu, H., & Peng, D. (2012). Structural plasticity of left caudate in bimodal bilinguals. Cortex, 48(9), 1197–1206.10.1016/j.cortex.2011.05.022CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.2 AAA

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

The PDF of this book complies with version 2.2 of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), offering more comprehensive accessibility measures for a broad range of users and attains the highest (AAA) level of WCAG compliance, optimising the user experience by meeting the most extensive accessibility guidelines.

Content Navigation

Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.

Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.

Reading Order & Textual Equivalents

Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.

Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.

Full alternative textual descriptions
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.

Visual Accessibility

Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.

Use of high contrast between text and background colour
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.