Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x5gtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-14T06:49:22.086Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Up from the Protoape

The Evolution of the Chimpanzee

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 July 2020

Kevin D. Hunt
Kevin D. Hunt
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Get access

Summary

Paleontologists face challenges seldom encountered in the scientific world. Their task is to put flesh – and behavior, if possible – on the bones of long-dead animals. Yet rarely do they have more than a handful of fossilized scraps. True, now and then a joyous cry echoes through the halls of academe as a half-skeleton of some important primate species is announced, but such rapturous events are rare. Instead, a typical haul is a chipped-up elbow or an inch or two of jaw with a tooth or two. Nature seems almost to be plotting against us.

Type
Chapter
Information
Chimpanzee
Lessons from our Sister Species
 , pp. 158 - 187
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alba, DM, Fortuny, J, Moya-Sola, S (2010) Enamel thickness in the Middle Miocene great apes Anoiapithecus, Pierolapithecus and Dryopithecus. Proc Roy Soc B 277, 2237–2245.Google Scholar
Alemseged, Z, Spoor, F, Kimbel, WH, et al. (2006) A juvenile early hominin skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 443, 296–301.Google Scholar
Almecija, S, Smaers, JB, Jungers, WL (2015) The evolution of human and ape hand proportions. Nat Comm 6, 7717.Google Scholar
Andrews, PJ (1981) Species diversity and diet in monkeys and apes during the Miocene. In Aspects of Human Evolution (ed. Stringer, CB), pp. 25–41. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Andrews, PJ, Martin, L (1991) Hominoid dietary evolution. Phil Trans Roy Soc B 334, 199–209.Google Scholar
Ashton, EH, Oxnard, CE (1963) The musculature of the primate shoulder. Trans Zool Soc Lond 29, 553–650.Google Scholar
Ashton, EH, Oxnard, CE (1964a) Locomotor pattern in primates. Proc Zool Soc Lond 142, 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashton, EH, Oxnard, CE (1964b) Functional adaptations in the primate shoulder girdle. Proc Zool Soc Lond 142, 49–66.Google Scholar
Aureli, F, Schaffner, CM, Verpooten, J, et al. (2006) Raiding parties of male spider monkeys: insights into human warfare? Am J Phys Anthropol 131, 486–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badgley, C, Barry, JC, Morgan, ME, et al. (2008) Ecological changes in Miocene mammalian record show impact of prolonged climatic forcing. PNAS 105, 12145–12149.Google Scholar
Barry, JC, Morgan, MLE, Flynn, LJ, et al. (2002) Faunal and environmental change in the Late Miocene Siwaliks of Northern Pakistan. Paleobiology 28, 1–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begun, DR (2003) Planet of the apes. Sci Am 289, 74–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Begun, DR (2010) Miocene hominids and the origins of the African apes and humans. Ann Rev Anthropol 39, 67–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, RH (1971) A grazing ecosystem in the Serengeti. Sci Am 225, 86–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benefit, BR (1999) Victoriapithecus: the key to Old World monkey and catarrhine origins. Evol Anthropol 8, 155–174.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benefit, BR, McCrossin, ML (2015) A window into ape evolution. Science 350, 515–516.Google Scholar
Brace, CL (1964) The fate of the “Classic” neanderthals: a consideration of hominid catastrophism. Curr Anthropol 5, 3–43.Google Scholar
Buck, C, Tolman, N, Tolman, W (1925) The tail as a balancing organ in mice. J Mammal 6, 267–271.Google Scholar
Cameron, DW (1997) A revised systematic scheme for the Eurasian Miocene fossil Hominidae. J Hum Evol 33, 449–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, CH, Leighton, M (1994) Comparative locomotor ecology of gibbons and macaques: selection of canopy elements for crossing gaps. Am J Phys Anthropol 93, 505–524.Google Scholar
Cant, JGH (1992) Positional behavior and body size of arboreal primates: a theoretical framework for field studies and an illustration of its application. Am J Phys Anthropol 88, 273–283.Google Scholar
Chatani, K (2003) Positional behavior of free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Primates 44, 13–23.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, TH, Harvey, PH (1977a) Primate ecology and social organisation. J Zool Lond 183, 1–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, TH, Harvey, PH (1977b) Species differences in feeding and ranging behavior in primates. In Primate Ecology (ed. Clutton-Brock, TH), pp. 557–588. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Corruccini, RS, McHenry, HM (2001) Knuckle-walking hominid ancestors? J Hum Evol 40, 507–511.Google Scholar
Covert, HH, Quyet, LK, Wright, BW (2006) The positional behavior of the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus avunculus) at Du Gia Nature Reserve, Ha Giang Province, Vietnam. Am J Phys Anthropol 42, 78.Google Scholar
Crompton, RH (2016) The hominins: a very conservative tribe? Last common ancestors, plasticity and ecomorphology in Hominidae. Or, What's in a name? J Anat 228, 686–699.Google Scholar
Dainton, M, Macho, GA (1999) Did knucklewalking evolve twice? J Hum Evol 36, 171–194.Google Scholar
de Bonis, L, Koufos, GD (1994) Our ancestors’ ancestor: Ouranopithecus is a Greek link in human ancestry. Evol Anthropol 3, 75–83.Google Scholar
de Bonis, L, Koufos, GD (2014) First discovery of postcranial bones of Ouranopithecus macedoniensis (Primates, Hominoidea) from the late Miocene of Macedonia (Greece). J Hum Evol 74, 21–36.Google Scholar
Delson, E (1994) Evolutionary history of the colobine monkeys in paleoenvironmental perspective. In Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution (eds. Davies, AG, Oates, JF) pp. 11–43. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Duda, P, Zrzavy, D (2013) Evolution of life history and behavior in Hominidae: towards phylogenetic reconstruction of the chimpanzee human last common ancestor. J Hum Evol 65, 424–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleagle, JG (1976) Locomotor behavior and skeletal anatomy of sympatric Malaysian leaf monkeys (Presbytis obscura and Presbytis melalophos). Ybk Phys Anthropol 20, 440–453.Google Scholar
Fleagle, JG (1977) Locomotor behavior and muscular anatomy of sympatric Malaysian leaf-monkeys (Presbytis obscura and Presbytis melalophos). Am J Phys Anthropol 46, 297–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleagle, JG (2013) Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 3rd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gaulin, SJC (1979) A Jarman–Bell model of primate feeding niches. Hum Ecol 7, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaulin, SJC, Konner, M (1977) On the natural diet of primates, including humans. In Nutrition and the Brain, Vol. 1. (eds. Wurtman, R, Wurtman, J), pp. 1–86. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Gebo, DL, MacLatchy, L, Kityo, R, et al. (1997) A hominoid genus from the early Miocene of Uganda. Science 276, 401–404.Google Scholar
Geist, V (1974) On the relationship of social organization and ecology in ungulates. Am Zool 14, 205–220.Google Scholar
Gonzales, LA, Benefit, BR, McCrossin, ML, Spoor, F (2015) Cerebral complexity preceded enlarged brain size and reduced olfactory bulbs in Old World monkeys. Nature Comm 6, 7580.Google Scholar
Grand, TI (1972) A mechanical interpretation of terminal branch feeding. J Mammal 53, 198–201.Google Scholar
Güleç, ES, Sevim, A, Pehlevan, C, Kaya, F (2007) A new great ape from the late Miocene of Turkey. Anthropol Sci 115, 153–158.Google Scholar
Hammond, AS, Alba, DM, Almécija, S, Moyà-Solà, S (2013) Middle Miocene Pierolapithecus provides a first glimpse into early hominid pelvic morphology. J Hum Evol 64, 658–666.Google Scholar
Harrison, T (1989) New postcranial remains of Victoriapithecus from the middle Miocene of Kenya. J Hum Evol 18, 3–54.Google Scholar
Harrison, T (2005) The zoogeographic and phylogenetic relationships of early catarrhine primates in Asia. Anthropol Sci 113, 43–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, T (2010a) Apes among the tangled branches of human origins. Science 327, 532–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, T (2010b) New estimates of hominoid taxonomic diversity in Africa during the Neogene and its implications for understanding catarrhine community structure. J Vert Paleontol 30, 102A.Google Scholar
Harrison, T, Andrews, P (2009) The anatomy and systematic position of the early Miocene proconsulid from Meswa Bridge, Kenya. J Hum Evol 56, 479–496.Google Scholar
Harvey, PH, Clutton-Brock, TH (1985) Life history variation in primates. Evolution 39, 559–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hladik, CM (1978) Adaptive strategies of primates in relation to leaf-eating. In The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores (ed. Montgomery, GG), pp. 373–395. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Hopwood, AT (1933) Miocene primates from Kenya. J Linn Soc Zool 38, 437–464.Google Scholar
Houle, A, Chapman, CA, Vickery, WL (2010) Intratree vertical variation of fruit density and the nature of contest competition in frugivores. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 64, 429–441.Google Scholar
Houle, A, Conklin-Brittain, NL, Wrangham, RW (2014) Vertical stratification of the nutritional value of fruit: macronutrients and condensed tannins. Am J Primatol 76, 1207–1232.Google Scholar
Hunt, KD (1992a) Positional behavior of Pan troglodytes in the Mahale Mountains and Gombe Stream National Parks, Tanzania. Am J Phys Anthropol 87, 83–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunt, KD (1992b) Social rank and body weight as determinants of positional behavior in Pan troglodytes. Primates 33, 347–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, KD (2016) Why are there apes? Evidence for the co-evolution of ape and monkey ecomorphology J Anat 228, 630–685.Google Scholar
Inouye, SE, Shea, BT (2004) The implications of variation in knuckle-walking features for models of African hominoid locomotor evolution. J Anthropol Sci 82, 67–88.Google Scholar
Ishida, H, Pickford, M (1997) A new Late Miocene hominoid from Kenya: Samburupithecus kiptalami gen. et sp. nov. CR Acad Sci II 325, 823–829.Google Scholar
Ishida, H, Kunimatsu, Y, Takano, T, Nakano, Y, Nakatsukasa, M (2004) Nacholapithecus skeleton from the Middle Miocene of Kenya. J Hum Evol 46, 69–103.Google Scholar
Jarman, PJ (1974) The social organization of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 58, 215–267.Google Scholar
Jungers, WL (1979) Locomotion, limb proportions, and skeletal allometry in lemurs and lorises. Folia Primatologica 32, 8–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, RF (1977) The evolution of molar occlusion in the Cercopithecidae and early catarrhines. Am J Phys Anthropol 46, 327–352.Google Scholar
Kelley, J (1994) A biological hypothesis of ape species density. In Current Primatology, Vol. 1: Ecology and Evolution (eds. Thierry, B, Anderson, JR, Roeder, JJ, Herrenschmidt, N), pp. 11–18. Strasbourg: Louis Pasteur University.Google Scholar
Kelley, J (1995a) Sex determination in Miocene catarrhine primates. Am J Phys Anthropol 96, 391–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelley, J (1995b) Sexual dimorphism in canine shape among extant great apes. Am J Phys Anthropol 96, 365–389.Google Scholar
Kelley, J (1997) Paleobiological and phylogenetic significance of life history in Miocene hominoids. In Function, Phylogeny, and Fossils (eds. Begun, DR, Ward, CV, Rose, MD) pp. 173–208. Boston, MA: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, J (2001) Phylogeny and sexually dimorphic characters: canine reduction in Ouranopithecus. In Phylogeny of the Neogene Hominoid Primates of Eurasia (eds. de Bonis, L, Koufos, GD, Andrews, P) pp. 269–283. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kivell, TL, Schmitt, D, Walker, A (2009) Independent evolution of knuckle-walking in African apes shows that humans did not evolve from a knuckle-walking ancestor. PNAS 106, 241–246.Google Scholar
Kleiber, M (1932) Body size and metabolism. Hilgardia 6, 315–353.Google Scholar
Koufos, GD, de Bonis, GD (2005) The late Miocene homininoids Ouranopithecus and Graecopithecus: implications about their relationship and taxonomy. Annales de Paleontologie 91, 227–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunimatsu, Y, Nakatsukasa, M, Sawada, Y, et al. (2007) A new late Miocene great ape from Kenya and its implications for the origins of African great apes and humans. Proc Nat Acad Sci 104, 220–225.Google Scholar
Larson, SG (1998) Parallel evolution in the hominoid trunk and forelimb. Evol Anthropol 6, 87–99.Google Scholar
MacLatchy, LM, Bossert, WH (1996) An analysis of the articular surface distribution of the femoral head and acetabulum in anthropoids, with implications for hip function in Miocene hominoids. J Hum Evol 31, 425–453.Google Scholar
MacLatchy, L, Gebo, D, Kityo, R, Pilbeam, D (2000) Postcranial functional morphology of Morotopithecus bishopi, with implications for the evolution of modern ape locomotion. J Hum Evol 39, 159–183.Google Scholar
Madar, SI, Rose, MD, Kelley, J, et al. (2002) New Sivapithecus postcranial specimens from the Siwaliks of Pakistan. J Hum Evol 42, 705–752.Google Scholar
Matthews, A, Matthews, A (2002) Distribution, population density, and status of sympatric cercopithecids in the Campo-Ma’an area, Southwestern Cameroon. Primates 43, 155–168.Google Scholar
McCrossin, ML, Benefit, BR (1997) On the relationships and adaptations of Kenyapithecus, a large-bodied hominoid from the middle Miocene of eastern Africa. In Function, Phylogeny, and Fossils (eds. Begun, DR, Ward, CV, Rose, MD) pp. 241–267. Boston, MA: Springer.Google Scholar
McNulty, KP, Begun, DR, Kelley, J, Manthi, FK, Mbua, EN (2015) A systematic revision of Proconsul with the description of a new genus of early Miocene hominoid. J hum Evol 84, 42–61.Google Scholar
Merceron, G, Koufos, GD, Valentin, X (2009) Feeding habits of the first European colobine, Mesopithecus (Mammalia, Primates): evidence from a comparative dental microwear analysis with modern cercopithecids. Geodiversitas 31, 865–878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, ME, Lewton, KL, Kelley, J, et al. (2015) A partial hominoid innominate from the Miocene of Pakistan: description and preliminary analyses. Proc Nat Acad Sci 112, 82–87.Google Scholar
Moyà-Solà, S, Köhler, M, Alba, DM, Casanovas-Vilar, I, Galindo, J (2004) Pierolapithecus catalaunicus, a new Middle Miocene great ape from Spain. Science 306, 1339–1344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakatsukasa, M, Kunimatsu, Y (2009) Nacholapithecus and its importance for understanding hominoid evolution Evol Anthrol 18, 103–119.Google Scholar
Napier, JR (1963) The locomotor functions of hominids. In Classification and Human Evolution (ed. Washburn, SL), pp. 178–189. Chicago, IL: Aldine.Google Scholar
Nemeth, LA (2007) Cercopithecoid versus ceboid monkeys as models for human drug metabolism. MS dissertation. Dublin: Hibernia College.Google Scholar
Oxnard, CE (1963) Locomotor adaptations in the primate forelimb. Symp Zool Soc Lond 10, 165–182.Google Scholar
Oxnard, CE (1967) The functional morphology of the primate shoulder as revealed by comparative anatomical osteometric and discriminant function techniques. Am J Phys Anthropol 26, 219–240.Google Scholar
Parsons, PE, Taylor, CR (1977) Energetics of brachiation versus walking: a comparison of a suspended and an inverted pendulum mechanism. Physiol Zool 50, 182–188Google Scholar
Patel, BA, Grossman, A (2006) Dental metric comparisons of Morotopithecus and Afropithecus: implications for the validity of the genus Morotopithecus. J Hum Evol 51, 506–512.Google Scholar
Pilbeam, DR, Rose, MD, Barry, JC, et al. (1990) New Sivapithecus humeri from Pakistan and the relationship of Sivapithecus and Pongo. Nature 348, 237–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plumptre, AJ, Cox, D (2006) Counting primates for conservation: primate surveys in Uganda. Primates 47, 65–73.Google Scholar
Raaum, RL, Sterner, KN, Noviello, CM, Stewart, CB, Disotell, TR (2005) Catarrhine primate divergence dates estimated from complete mitochondrial genomes: concordance with fossil and nuclear DNA evidence. J Hum Evol 48, 237–257.Google Scholar
Richmond, BG, Strait, DS (2000) Evidence that humans evolved from a knuckle-walking ancestor. Nature 404, 382–385.Google Scholar
Ripley, S (1970) Leaves and leaf-monkeys: the social organization of foraging gray langurs (Presbytes entellus thersites). In Old World Monkeys: Evolution, Systematics, and Behavior (eds. Napier, JR, Napier, PH), pp. 481–509. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ripley, S (1979) Environmental grain, niche diversification, and positional behavior in Neogene primates: an evolutionary hypothesis. In Environment, Behavior and Morphology: Dynamic Interactions in Primates (eds. Morbeck, ME, Preuschoft, H, Gomberg, N), pp. 91–104. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Rose, MD (1973) Quadrupedalism in primates. Primates 14, 337–357.Google Scholar
Rose, MD (1983) Miocene hominoid postcranial morphology: monkey-like, ape-like, neither, or both? In New Interpretations of Ape and Human Ancestry (eds. Ciochon, RL, Corruccini, RS), pp. 405–417. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, MD (1989) New postcranial specimens of catarrhines from the Middle Miocene Chinji Formation, Pakistan: descriptions and a discussion of proximal humeral functional morphology in anthropoids. J Hum Evol 18, 131–162.Google Scholar
Rose, MD (1993) Locomotor anatomy of Miocene hominoids. In Postcranial Adaptation in Nonhuman Primates (ed. Gebo, DL), pp. 252–272. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
Rose, MD (1996) Functional morphological similarities in the locomotor skeleton of Miocene catarrhines and platyrrhine monkeys. Folia Primatol 66, 7–14.Google Scholar
Ryan, TM, Silcox, MT, Walker, A, et al. (2012) Evolution of locomotion in Anthropoidea: the semicircular canal evidence. Proc Roy Soc London B 279, 3467–3475.Google Scholar
Sailer, LD, Gaulin, SJC, Boster, JS, Kurland, JA (1983) Measuring the relationship between dietary quality and body size in primates. Primates 26, 14–27.Google Scholar
Schultz, AH (1930) The skeleton of the trunk and limbs of higher primates. Hum Biol 2, 303–438.Google Scholar
Schultz, AH (1950) The physical distinctions of man. Proc Am Philos Soc 94, 428–449.Google Scholar
Schwartz, GT, Conroy, GC (1996) Cross‐sectional geometric properties of the Otavipithecus mandible. Am J Phys Anthropol 99, 613–623.Google Scholar
Scott, JE, Schrein, CM, Kelley, J (2009) Beyond Gorilla and Pongo: alternative models for evaluating variation and sexual dimorphism in fossil hominoid samples. Am J Phys Anthropol 140, 253–264.Google Scholar
Stern, JT Jr. (1971) Functional Myology of the Hip and Thigh of Cebid Monkeys and Its Implications for the Evolution of Erect Posture. Basel: Karger.Google Scholar
Stevens, N, Seiffert, ER, O’Connor, PM, et al. (2013) Palaeontological evidence for an Oligocene divergence between Old World monkeys and apes. Nature 497, 611–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Su, DF, Jablonski, NG (2009) Locomotor behavior and skeletal morphology of the odd-nosed monkeys. Folia Primatol 80, 189–219.Google Scholar
Swedell, L, Plummer, T (2012) A Papionin multilevel society as a model for hominin social evolution. Int J Primatol 33, 1165–1193.Google Scholar
Temerin, LA, Cant, JGH (1983) The evolutionary divergence of old world monkeys and apes. Am Nat 122, 335–351.Google Scholar
Walker, AC, Pickford, M (1983) New post-cranial fossils of Proconsul africanus and Proconsul nyanzae. In New Interpretations of Ape and Human Ancestry (eds. Ciochon, RL, Corruccion, RS), pp. 325–351. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Walker, AC, Rose, M (1968) Fossil hominoid vertebra from the Miocene of Uganda. Nature 217, 980–981.Google Scholar
Walker, AC, Teaford, M (1989) The hunt for Proconsul. Sci Am 260, 76–82.Google Scholar
Wang, WJ, Crompton, RH (2004) Analysis of the human and ape foot during bipedal standing with implications for the evolution of the foot. J Biomech 37, 1831–1836.Google Scholar
Ward, CV (1993) Torso morphology and locomotion in Proconsul nyanzae. Am J Phys Anthropol 92, 291–328.Google Scholar
Ward, CV, Walker, A, Teaford, MF (1991) Proconsul did not have a tail. J Hum Evol 21, 215–220.Google Scholar
Ward, CV, Walker, A, Teaford, MF, Odhiambo, I (1993) Partial skeleton of Proconsul nyanzae from Mfangano Island, Kenya. Am J Phys Anthropol 90, 77–111.Google Scholar
Ward, S, Brown, B, Hill, A, Kelley, J, Downs, W (1999) Equatorius: a new hominoid genus from the middle Miocene of Kenya. Science 285, 1382–1386.Google Scholar
Washburn, SL (1957) Ischial callosities as sleeping adaptations. Am J Phys Anthropol 15, 269–276.Google Scholar
Watson, J, Payne, R, Chamberlain, A, et al. (2009) Carrying in humans and great apes: implications for the evolution of human bipedalism. Folia Primatol 80, 309–328.Google Scholar
Wheatley, BP (1982) Energetics of foraging in Macaca fascicularis and Pongo pygmaeus and a selective advantage of large body size in the orangutan. Primates 23, 348–363.Google Scholar
Wrangham, RW (1979) The evolution of ape social systems. Soc Sci Infor 18, 335–368.Google Scholar
Wrangham, RW (1980) An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups. Behaviour 75, 262–299.Google Scholar
Wrangham, RW, Peterson, D (1997) Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Violence. New York: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R, Pilbeam, D (2002) African apes as time machines. In All Apes Great and Small: Developments in Primatology – Progress and Prospects (eds. Galdikas, BMF, Briggs, NE, Sheeran, LK, Shapiro, GL, Goodall, J), pp. 5–17. Boston, MA: Springer.Google Scholar
Wrangham, RW, Waterman, PG (1983) Condensed tannins in fruits eaten by chimpanzees. Biotropica 15, 217–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wrangham, RW, Conklin-Brittain, NL, Hunt, KD (1998) Dietary response of chimpanzees and cercopithecines to seasonal variation in fruit abundance. I. Antifeedants. Int J Primatol 19, 949–970.Google Scholar
Young, NM, MacLatchy, L (2004) The phylogenetic position of Morotopithecus. J Hum Evol 46, 163–184.Google Scholar
Zalmout, IS, Sanders, WJ, MacLatchy, LM, et al. (2010) New Oligocene primate from Saudi Arabia and the divergence of apes and Old World monkeys. Nature 466, 360–364.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Up from the Protoape
  • Kevin D. Hunt, Indiana University, Bloomington
  • Book: Chimpanzee
  • Online publication: 10 July 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316339916.010
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Up from the Protoape
  • Kevin D. Hunt, Indiana University, Bloomington
  • Book: Chimpanzee
  • Online publication: 10 July 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316339916.010
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Up from the Protoape
  • Kevin D. Hunt, Indiana University, Bloomington
  • Book: Chimpanzee
  • Online publication: 10 July 2020
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316339916.010
Available formats
×