SETTING THE STAGE

Discrimination is a perennial challenge to societies that hold equality as a collective aim. A snapshot of three dynamic markets – labor, housing, and credit – in which transactions heavily depend on discretionary choices to be concluded, illustrates how equality is still a path to be paved. In this respect, numbers show that throughout Europe ethnic minorities have fewer chances of being contacted by employment recruiters; women are 40% less likely to be an elected board member of a private company; women of color are particularly vulnerable to workplace discrimination and experience higher rates of overqualifi cation; and individuals with Northern African origins (Maghreb) have been reportedly refused by landlords in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Spain. In the United States, white employment applicants receive, on average, 36% more callbacks from recruiters than Black American applicants and 24% more callbacks than Hispanic applicants with similar experience; the callback rate for highly skilled male workers is four times greater than for highly skilled female workers; Black Americans, Hispanics, immigrants, same-sex couples, and, to some extent, individuals with disabilities have faced discrimination when seeking a place to live; and Black Americans and Hispanics applying for credit are denied loans two to three times more often than white individuals.

Over the past 20 years, markets have expanded to the internet where individuals and companies directly provide services, connect supply and demand, or advertise their products. In this context, online platforms have emerged as a driving force in most economies. They have become a ubiquitous tool for all sorts of transactions and interactions. Particularly, online platforms have evolved into spaces through which ordinary citizens shop (Amazon, eBay); apply for jobs (LinkedIn, Sumry); search for housing (Craigslist, Roommates, SpareRoom); advertise employment, services, and goods (Facebook, Google); connect with friends (Facebook, Instagram); seek entertainment (YouTube); search for knowledge (Google, Udemy); book accommodation for their next vacation (Airbnb, Abritel); and apply for credit (Prosper, Peerform).

Social interactions taking place in these online spaces have expectedly mirrored the state of inequality of these markets offline. Media, scholars, and case law have documented the development of discrimination against statutorily protected classes in online platforms.