Short. This chapter describes 12th-century vernacular (i.e. non-Latin) manuscript production in Britain and in France, and covers textual survivals, both literary and non-literary, in Anglo-Norman and Continental French, in English, Welsh and Scots-Irish. It illustrates the development of an innovative written culture, hitherto largely monopolised by Church Latin, reflecting resurgent secular interest in literacy, literature and learning. Palmer. New developments in German literature during the twelfth century are evident in the rise of new literary forms such as Minnesang, courtly romance, and the heroic epic, in the documention of lay patronage of literary production among the higher nobility, in the influence of French, in the development of sophisticated verse forms employing pure rhyme, and in the innovative self-profiling of authors as learned clerks, even as learned knights or as poeta doctus. Nonetheless the surviving vernacular manuscripts and fragments from the period (perhaps as many as 200) are predominantly monastic, often associated with the Benedictine reforms, and it is not until the early thirteenth century that a response to the new developments in literary production become evident in the manuscript book.