Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vfjqv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T11:47:59.728Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Section 4 - Psychiatric and Neuropsychological Considerations in Adults with Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 May 2018

Edited by
W. Curt LaFrance, Jr  and
Steven C. Schachter
W. Curt LaFrance, Jr
Affiliation:
Brown Medical School, Providence
Steven C. Schachter
Affiliation:
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Gates and Rowan's Nonepileptic Seizures , pp. 217 - 256
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Martin, RL, Gates, JR. Nosology, classification, and differential diagnosis of non-epileptic seizures: an alternative proposal. In: Gates, JR, Rowan, AJ, eds. Non-Epileptic Seizures, 2nd edn, Chapter 20, Boston MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000;253–267.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, M, Spitzer, RL. Psychiatric classification. In: Sadock, BJ, Sadock, VA, Kaplan, HI, eds. Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Chapter 9.1. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004;1003–1034.Google Scholar
Mayou, R, et al. Somatoform disorders: time for a new approach in DSM-V. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:847–855.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn. (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar
Stone, J, LaFrance, WC Jr., Brown, R, et al. Conversion Disorder: current problems and potential solutions for DSM-5. J Psychosom Res 2011;71:369–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, J, LaFrance, WC Jr., Levenson, JL, et al. Issues for DSM-5: Conversion disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2010;167:626–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaFrance, WC Jr., Baker, GA, Duncan, R, et al. Minimum requirements for the diagnosis of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a staged approach: a report from the International League Against Epilepsy Nonepileptic Seizures Task Force. Epilepsia 2013;54:2005–2018.Google Scholar
Ingvar, DH, Nyman, GE. A new psychological trigger mechanism in a case of epilepsy. Neurology 1962;12:282–287.Google Scholar
Fenwick, P. Precipitation and inhibition of seizures. In: Reynolds, EH, Trimble, MR, eds. Epilepsy and Psychiatry. Edinburgh; New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1981;306–321.Google Scholar
Mattson, RH, Heninger, GR, Gallagher, BB, et al. Abstract BT 20. Psychophysiologic precipitants of seizures in epileptics. Neurology 1970;20:407.Google Scholar
Fenton, GW. Epilepsy and hysteria. Br J Psychiatry 1986;149:28–37.Google Scholar
Trimble, MR. Pseudoseizures. Neurol Clin 1986;4:531–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gate, JR, Mercer, K. Nonepileptic events. Semin Neurol 1995;15:167–174.Google Scholar
Stone, J, Campbell, K, Sharma, N, et al. What should we call pseudoseizures? The patient's perspective. Seizure 2003;12:568–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaFrance, WC Jr., Rusch, MD, Machan, JT. What is “treatment as usual” for nonepileptic seizures? Epilepsy Behav 2008;12:388–394.Google Scholar
Porter, RJ, Diagnosis of psychogenic and other nonepileptic seizures in adults. In: Devinsky, O, Theodore, WH, eds. Epilepsy and Behavior Chapter 17. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1991;237–249.Google Scholar
Scull, DA, Letter to the Editor: Pseudoseizures or non-epileptic seizures (NES); 15 synonyms. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62:200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chabolla, DR, Krahn, LE, So, EL, et al. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Mayo Clin Proc 1996;71:493–500.Google Scholar
Fisher, RS, et al. Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: definitions proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE). Epilepsia 2005;46:470–472.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Zimmerman, M. Classification of nonepileptic seizures. In: Schachter, SC, LaFrance, WC., eds. Gates and Rowan's Nonepileptic Seizures, 3rd edn. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010;199–212.Google Scholar
Commission on Classification and Terminology of the ILAE. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1989;30:389–399.Google Scholar
Fisher, RS, Acevedo, A, Arzimanoglou, A, et al. ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy. Epilepsia 2014;55:475–482.Google Scholar
Kalogjera-Sackellares, D. Psychological disturbances in patients with pseudoseizures. In: Sackellares, JC, Berent, S, eds. Psychological Disturbances in Epilepsy. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1996;191–217.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES. Etiology and clinical course of pseudoseizures. Relationship to trauma, depression, and dissociation. Psychosomatics 1993;34:333–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowman, ES, Markand ON. The contribution of life events to pseudoseizure occurrence in adults. Bull Menninger Clin 1999;63:70–88.Google Scholar
Ford, CV, Folks, DG. Conversion disorders: an overview. Psychosomatics 1985;26:371–374, 380–383.Google Scholar
Ford, , CV. The somatizing disorders. Psychosomatics 1986;27:327–331, 335–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, PM, Baker, GA. Non-epileptic attack disorder: a psychological perspective. Seizure 1997;6:429–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gumnit, RJ, Gates, JR. Psychogenic seizures. Epilepsia 1986;27 Suppl 2:S124–129.Google Scholar
Gates, JR, Ramani, V, Whalen, S, et al. Ictal characteristics of pseudoseizures. Arch Neurol 1985;42:1183–1187.Google Scholar
Betts, T, Boden, S. Diagnosis, management and prognosis of a group of 128 patients with non-epileptic attack disorder. Part I. Seizure 1992;1:19–26.Google Scholar
Betts, T, Boden, S. Diagnosis, management and prognosis of a group of 128 patients with non-epileptic attack disorder. Part II. Previous childhood sexual abuse in the aetiology of these disorders. Seizure 1992;1:27–32.Google Scholar
van Merode, T, de Krom, MC, Knottnerus, JA. Gender-related differences in non-epileptic attacks: a study of patients' cases in the literature. Seizure 1997;6:311–316.Google Scholar
Rusch, MD, Morris, GL, Allen, L, et al. Psychological treatment of nonepileptic events. Epilepsy Behav 2001;2:277–283.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Devinsky, O. Treatment of nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2002; 3(5 Suppl 1):S19–23.Google Scholar
Dietl, T, Bien, C, Urbach, H, et al. Episodic depersonalization in focal epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2005;7:311–315.Google Scholar
Dikel, TN, Fennell, EB, Gilmore, RL. Posttraumatic stress disorder, dissociation, and sexual abuse history in epileptic and nonepileptic seizure patients. Epilepsy Behav 2003;4:644–650.Google Scholar
Sivec, HJ, Lynn, SJ. Dissociative and neuropsychological symptoms: the question of differential diagnosis. Clin Psychol Rev 1995;15:297–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization, ed. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. World Health Organization: Geneva, 1992.Google Scholar
Jawad, SS, Jamil, N, Clarke, EJ, et al. Psychiatric morbidity and psychodynamics of patients with convulsive pseudoseizures. Seizure 1995;4:201–206.Google Scholar
Gloor, P. Consciousness as a neurological concept in epileptology: a critical review. Epilepsia 1986;27 Suppl 2:S14–26.Google Scholar
Trimble, MR. Non-epileptic seizures. In: Halligan, PW, Bass, CM, Marshall, JC, eds. Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Hysteria: Clinical and Theoretical Perspectives. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001;143–154.Google Scholar
Primavera, A, Fonti, P, Novello, G, et al. Epileptic seizures in patients with acute catatonic syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:1419–1422.Google Scholar
Weilburg, JB, Schachter, S, Worth, J, et al. EEG abnormalities in patients with atypical panic attacks. J Clin Psychiatry 1995;56:358–362.Google Scholar
Weilburg, JB, Schachter, S, Sach, GS, et al. Focal paroxysmal EEG changes during atypical panic attacks. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993;5:50–55.Google Scholar
Hogan, RE, Kaiboriboon, K. The “dreamy state”: John Hughlings-Jackson's ideas of epilepsy and consciousness. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1740–1747.Google Scholar
Owczarek, K. Anxiety as a differential factor in epileptic versus psychogenic pseudoepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Res 2003;52:227–232.Google Scholar
Guze, SB. The validity and significance of the clinical diagnosis of hysteria (Briquet's syndrome). Am J Psychiatry 1975;132:138–141.Google Scholar
Wetzel, RD, Guze, SB, Cloninger, CR, et al. Briquet's syndrome (hysteria) is both a somatoform and a “psychoform” illness: a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory study. Psychosom Med 1994;56:564–569.Google Scholar
MacDonald, CF. Feigned epilepsy. Case of James Clegg, alias James Lee, the “Dummy Chucker”. Am J Insanity 1880;37:1–22.Google Scholar
Hammond, RD. Simulated epilepsy: report of a case. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1948;60:327–328.Google Scholar
Gordon, N. Episodic dyscontrol syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 1999;41:786–788.Google Scholar
Drake, ME Jr. Saline activation of pseudoepileptic seizures: clinical EEG and neuropsychiatric observations. Clin Electroencephalogr 1985;16:171–176.Google Scholar
Olvera, RL. Intermittent explosive disorder: epidemiology, diagnosis and management. CNS Drugs 2002;16:517–526.Google Scholar
Brown, RJ, Trimble, MR. Editorial: Dissociative psychopathology, non-epileptic seizures, and neurology. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000;69:285–288.Google Scholar
Kuyk, J, Van Dyck, R, Spinhoven, P. The case for a dissociative interpretation of pseudoepileptic seizures. J Nerv Ment Dis 1996;184:468–474.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES. Why conversion seizures should be classified as a dissociative disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2006;29:185–211.Google Scholar
Marchetti, RL, Kurcgant, D, Neto, JG, et al. Psychiatric diagnoses of patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure 2008;17:247–253.Google Scholar
Tabassum, K, Farooq, S. Sociodemographic features, affective symptoms and family functioning in hospitalized patients with dissociative disorder (convulsion type). J Pak Med Assoc 2007;57:23–26.Google Scholar
Goldstein, LH, Mellers, JD. Ictal symptoms of anxiety, avoidance behaviour, and dissociation in patients with dissociative seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:616–621.Google Scholar
Sar, V, Akyuz, G, Kundakçi, T, et al. Childhood trauma, dissociation, and psychiatric comorbidity in patients with conversion disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:2271–2276.Google Scholar
Fiszman, A, et al. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a critical review. Epilepsy Behav 2004;5:818–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akyuz, G, et al. Dissociation and childhood abuse history in epileptic and pseudoseizure patients. Epileptic Disord 2004;6:187–192.Google Scholar
Reuber, M, et al. Somatization, dissociation and general psychopathology in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Epilepsy Res 2003;57:159–167.Google Scholar
Prueter, C, Schultz-Venrath, U, Rimpau, W. Dissociative and associated psychopathological symptoms in patients with epilepsy, pseudoseizures, and both seizure forms. Epilepsia 2002;43:188–192.Google Scholar
Devinsky, O. Neurological aspects of the conscious and unconscious mind. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997;835:321–329.Google Scholar
Moscovitch, M. Recovered consciousness: a hypothesis concerning modularity and episodic memory. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1995;17:276–290.Google Scholar
Kihlstrom, JF. The cognitive unconscious. Science 1987;237:1445–1452.Google Scholar
McCormick, DA. Cortical and subcortical generators of normal and abnormal rhythmicity. Int Rev Neurobiol 2002;49:99–114.Google Scholar
Hasenstaub, A, Sachdev, RN, McCormick, DA. State changes rapidly modulate cortical neuronal responsiveness. J Neurosci 2007;27:9607–9622.Google Scholar
McCormick, DA, Contreras, D. On the cellular and network bases of epileptic seizures. Annu Rev Physiol 2001;63:815–846.Google Scholar
Monaco, F, Mula, M, Cavanna, AE. Consciousness, epilepsy, and emotional qualia. Epilepsy Behav 2005;7:150–160.Google Scholar
Oana, Y. Epileptic seizures and pseudoseizures from the viewpoint of the hierarchy of consciousness. Epilepsia 1998;39(Suppl 5):21–25.Google Scholar
Devinsky, O, D'Esposito, M. Neuroanatomy and assessment of cognitive-behavioral function. In: Devinsky, O, D'Esposito, M, eds. Neurology of Cognitive and Behavioral Disorders. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004;1–51.Google Scholar
Sierra, M, Berrios, GE. Towards a neuropsychiatry of conversive hysteria. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 1999;4:267–287.Google Scholar
Devinsky, O, D'Esposito, M. The right hemisphere, interhemispheric communication, and consciousness. In: Devinsky, O, D'Esposito, M, eds. Neurology of Cognitive and Behavioral Disorders. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004;68–95.Google Scholar
Reuber, M, et al. Evidence of brain abnormality in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2002;3:249–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devinsky, O, Mesad, S, Alper, K. Nondominant hemisphere lesions and conversion nonepileptic seizures. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001;13:367–373.Google Scholar
Tucker, G, et al. Reorganizing the “organic” disorders. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1990;41:722–724.Google Scholar
Rothner, AD. ‘Not everything that shakes is epilepsy’. The differential diagnosis of paroxysmal nonepileptiform disorders. Cleve Clin J Med 1989;56 (Suppl Pt 2):S206–213.Google Scholar
Grubb, BP, et al. Syncope and seizures of psychogenic origin: identification with head-upright tilt table testing. Clin Cardiol 1992;15:839–842.Google Scholar
Grubb, BP, et al. Differentiation of convulsive syncope and epilepsy with head-up tilt testing. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:871–876.Google Scholar
Gerstner, E, Liberato, B, Wright, CB. Bi-hemispheric anterior cerebral artery with drop attacks and limb shaking TIAs. Neurology 2005;65:174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, RS. Imitators of epilepsy. CNS Spectr 1997;2:39–55.Google Scholar
Berg, AT, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies: report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005–2009. Epilepsia 2010;51:676–685.Google Scholar
O'Shea, B. Factitious disorders: the Baron's legacy. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract 2003;7:33–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devinsky, O, et al. Dissociative states and epilepsy. Neurology 1989;39:835–840.Google Scholar
Ross, CA, et al. Differentiating multiple personality disorder and complex partial seizures. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1989;11:54–58.Google Scholar

References

Hysteria, Veith I.. The History of a Disease. Chicago: University of Chicago; 1965.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edn. (DSM-III). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn. (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. Geneva: World Psychiatric Publishing; 1992;151:737–739.Google Scholar
Ellenberger, HF. The discovery of the unconscious. The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Harper Basic Books; 1970.Google Scholar
Janet, P. L'Automatisme Psychologique. Paris: Alcan; 1889.Google Scholar
Janet, P. The Major Symptoms of Hysteria. London: Macmillan; 1907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briquet, P. Traité d'hysterie. Paris: Ballière et Fils; 1859.Google Scholar
Fiszman, A, Alves-Leon, SV, Nunes, RG, D'Andea, I, Figueira, I. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: a critical review. Epilepsy Behav 2004;5:818–825.Google Scholar
Goodwin, J, Simms, M, Bergman, R. Hysterical seizures: a sequel to incest. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1979;49:698.Google Scholar
LaBarbera, JK, Dozier, JR. Psychologic responses of incestuous daughters: emerging patterns. South Med J 1981;74:1478.Google Scholar
Gross, M. Incestuous rape: a cause for hysterical seizures in our adolescent girls. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1979;49:704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betts, T, Boden, S. Diagnosis, management and prognosis of a group of 128 patients in non-epileptic attack disorder. Part II. Previous childhood sexual abuse in the etiology of these disorders. Seizure 1992:1:27.Google Scholar
Proenca, IC, Castro, LH, Jorge, CL, Marchetti, RL. Emotional trauma and abuse in patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2011;20:331–333.Google Scholar
Ozcetin, A, Belli, H, Ertem, U, et al. Childhood trauma and dissociation in women with pseudoseizure-type conversion disorder. Nordic J Psychiatry 2009;63:462–468.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES, Markand, ON. The contribution of life events to pseudoseizure occurrence in adults. Bull Menninger Clin 1999;63:70–88.Google Scholar
Binzer, M, Stone, J, Sharpe, M. Recent onset pseudoseizures – clues to aetiology. Seizure 2004;13:146–155.Google Scholar
Krawetz, P, Fleisher, W, Pillay, N, et al. Family functioning in subjects with pseudoseizures and epilepsy. J Nerv Ment Dis 2001;189:38–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffith, JJ, Polles, A, Griffith, ME. Pseudoseizures, families and unspeakable dilemmas. Psychosomatics 1998;39:144–153.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES, Markand, ON. Psychodynamics and psychiatric diagnoses of pseudoseizure subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:57–63.Google Scholar
Salmon, P, Al-Marzooqi, SM, Baker, G, Reilly, J. Childhood family dysfunction and associated abuse in patients with nonepileptic seizures: toward a causal model. Psychosom Med 2003;65:695–700.Google Scholar
Tojek, TM, Lumley, M, Barkley, G, Mahr, G, Thomas, A. Stress and other psychosocial characteristics of patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Psychosomatics 2000;41:221–226.Google Scholar
Wyllie, E, Glazer, JP, Benbadis, S, et al. Psychiatric features of children and adolescents with pseudoseizures. Arch Pediatr Med 1999;153:244–248.Google Scholar
Alper, K, Devinsky, O, Perrine, K, Vazquez, B, Luciano, D. Nonepileptic seizures and childhood sexual and physical abuse. Neurology 1993;43:1950–1953.Google Scholar
Alper, K, Devinsky, O, Perrine, K, et al. Dissociation in epilepsy and conversion nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia 1997;38:991–997.Google Scholar
Dikel, TN, Fennell, EB, Gilmore, RL. Posttraumatic stress disorder, dissociation, and sexual abuse history in epileptic and nonepileptic seizure patients. Epilepsy Behav 2003;4:644–650.Google Scholar
Arnold, LM, Privitera, MD. Psychopathology and trauma in epileptic and psychogenic seizure patients. Psychosomatics 1996;37:438–443.Google Scholar
Quinn, M, Schofield, M, Middleton, W. Conceptualization and treatment of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. J Trauma Dissoc 2008;9:63–84.Google Scholar
Reuber, M, Howlett, S, Khan, A, Grünewald, RA. Non-epileptic seizures and other functional neurological symptoms: predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors. Psychosomatics 2007;48:230–238.Google Scholar
Bernstein, DP, Ahluvalia, T, Pogge, D, Handelsman, L. Validity of the childhood trauma questionnaire in an adolescent psychiatric population. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:340–348.Google Scholar
Ogawa, JR, Sroufe, LA, Weinfeld, NS, et al. Development and the fragmented self: longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample. Dev Psychopathol 1997;9:855–879.Google Scholar
van Ijzendoorn, M, Schuengel, C, Bakermans-Krananburg, MJ. Disorganized attachment in early childhood: meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Dev Psychopathol 1999;11:225–249.Google Scholar
Harari, D, Bkersman-Kranenburg, MJ, van Ijzendoorn, MJ. Attachment, disorganization, and dissociation. In: Vermetten, E, Dorahy, MJ, Spiegel, D, eds. Traumatic Dissociation: Neurobiology and Treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2007:31–54.Google Scholar
van der Kolk, BA, Leisaeth, L, van der Hart, O. History of trauma in psychiatry. In: Van der Kolk, BA, McFarlane, AC, Weisaeth, L, eds. Traumatic Stress. New York: Guilford; 1996:47–74.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES. Why conversion seizures should be classified as a dissociative disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2006;19:185–211.Google Scholar
Harden, CL. Pseudoseizures and dissociative disorder: a common mechanism involving traumatic experience. Seizure 1997;6:151–155.Google Scholar
Spitzer, C, Spelsberg, B, Grabe, H-J, Mundt, B, Freyberger, HJ. Dissociative experiences and psychopathology in conversion disorders. J Psychosom Res 1999;46:291–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuyk, J, Van Dyck, RV, Spinhoven, P. The case for a dissociative interpretation of pseudoepileptic seizures. J Nerv Ment Dis 1996;184:408–474.Google Scholar
Tezcan, E, Atmaca, M, Kuloglu, M, et al. Dissociative disorders in Turkish inpatients with conversion disorder. Compr Psychiatry 2003;44:324–330.Google Scholar
Nijenhuis, ERS. Somatoform Dissociation. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum; 1999.Google Scholar
Tomb, DA. Psychogenic seizures. Neurology 1992;42:1848–1849.Google Scholar
Wyllie, E, Glazer, JP, Benbadis, S, Kotagal, P, Wolgamuth, B. Psychiatric features of children and adolescents with pseudoseizures. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999;153:244–248.Google Scholar
Breslau, N, Davis, GC, Andreski, P, Peterson, E. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:216–222.Google Scholar
Kulka, RA, Schlenger, WE, Fairbank, JA, et al. Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans’ Readjustment Study. New York: Brunner Mazel; 1990.Google Scholar
Bremner, JD, Narayan, M, Staib, LH, et al. Neural correlates of memories of childhood sexual abuse in women with and without posttraumatic stress disorder Am J Psychiatry 1999;156;1787–1795.Google Scholar
Bremner, JD, Staib, LH, Kaloupek, D, et al. Neural correlates of exposure to traumatic pictures and sound in Vietnam combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: a positron emission tomography study. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:806–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lanius, RA, Williamson, PC, Densmore, M, et al. Neural correlates of traumatic memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional MRI investigation. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1920–1922.Google Scholar
Lanius, RA, Bluhm, R, Lanius, U. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom provocation and neuroimaging. In: Vermetten, E, Dorahy, MJ, Spiegel, D, eds. Traumatic Dissociation. Neurobiology and Treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2007:191–217.Google Scholar
Alper, K. Nonepileptic seizures. Neurol Clin 1994;12:153–173.Google Scholar
Koopman, C, Classen, C, Spiegel, D. Predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms among survivors of the Oakland-Berkeley, California firestorm. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:888–894.Google Scholar
Brewin, CR, Andrews, B, Rose, S, Kirk, M. Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of violent crime. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:360–366.Google Scholar
Nemiah, JC. Dissociation, conversion, and somatization. In: Tasman, A, Goldfinger, SM, eds. Review of Psychiatry, Volume 10. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1991:249–260.Google Scholar
Alexander, PJ, Joseph, S, Das, A. Limited utility of ICD-10 and DSM-IV classification of dissociative and conversion disorders in India. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997;95:177–192.Google Scholar
Nijenhuis, ERS, Spinhoven, P, van Dyck, R, van der Hart, O, Vanderlinden, J. Degree of somatoform and psychological dissociation in dissociative disorder is correlated with reported trauma. J Trauma Stress 1998;11:711–730.Google Scholar
van der Hart, O, Horst, R. The dissociation theory of Pierre Janet. J Trauma Stress 1989;2:397–412.Google Scholar
Ross, CA, Anderson, G, Fleisher, WP, Norton, GR. The frequency of multiple personality disorder among psychiatric inpatients. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:1717–1720.Google Scholar
Coons, PM. Dissociative disorders not otherwise specified: a clinical investigation of 50 cases with suggestions for treatment. Dissociation 1992;5:187–195.Google Scholar
Coons, PM, Bowman, ES, Milstein, V. Multiple personality disorder: a clinical investigation of 50 cases. J Nerv Ment Dis 1988;176:519–527.Google Scholar
Ross, CA, Miller, SD, Reagor, P, et al. Structured interview data on 102 cases of multiple personality disorder from four centers. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:596–601.Google Scholar
Dell, PF, Eisenhower, JW. Adolescent multiple personality disorder: a preliminary study of eleven cases. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990;29:359–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, FW, Guroff, JJ, Silberman, EK, et al. The clinical phenomenology of multiple personality disorder: review of 100 recent cases. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:285–293.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, RJ. Somatoform disorders in victims of incest and child abuse. In: Kluft, RP, ed. Incest-Related Syndromes of Adult Psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1990:75–107.Google Scholar
Felitti, VJ. Long-term medical consequences of incest, rape, and molestation. South Med J 1991;84:328–331.Google Scholar
Glod, CA. Long-term consequences of childhood physical and sexual abuse. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 1993;7:163–173.Google Scholar
Kanner, AM, Parra, J, Frey, M, et al. Psychiatric and neurologic predictor of psychogenic pseudoseizure outcome. Neurology 1999;53:933–938.Google Scholar
Litwin, R, Cardeňa, E. Demographic and seizure variables but not hypnotizability or dissociation differentiated psychogenic from organic seizures. J Trauma Dissoc 2000;1:99–122.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES, Kanner, AM. Psychopathology and outcome in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. In: Ettinger, AB, Kanner, AM, eds. Psychiatric Issues in Epilepsy: A Practical Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. Philadelphia: Lippincott William & Wilkins; 2007:432–460.Google Scholar
Ramchandani, D, Schindler, B. Evaluation of pseudoseizures. A psychiatric perspective. Psychosomatics 1993;34:70–79.Google Scholar
Stefánsson, JG, Messina, JA, Meyerowitz, S. Hysterical neurosis, conversion type: clinical and epidemiological considerations. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1976;53:119–138.Google Scholar
Tietjen, GE, Brandes, JL, Digre, KB, et al. History of childhood maltreatment is associated with comorbid depression in women with migraine. Neurology 2007;69:959–968.Google Scholar
Sack, M, Lahmann, C, Jaeger, B, Henningsen, P. Trauma prevalence and somatoform symptoms. Are there specific somatoform symptoms related to traumatic experiences? J Nerv Ment Dis 2007;195:928–933.Google Scholar
Blumer, D. The paroxysmal somatoform disorder: a series of patients with non-epileptic seizures. In: Rowan, AJ, Gates, JR, eds. Non-Epileptic Seizures 1st edn. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1993:165–172.Google Scholar
Ettinger, AB, Devinsky, O, Weisbrot, DM, Goyal, A, Shashikumar, S. Headaches and other pain symptoms among patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure 1999;8:424–426.Google Scholar
Heim, C, Ehlert, U, Hanker, JP, Hellhammer, DH. Abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder and alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in women with chronic pelvic pain. Psychosom Med 1998;6;309–318.Google Scholar
Ehlert, U, Heim, C, Hellhammer, DH. Chronic pelvic pain as a somatoform disorder. Psychother Psychosom 1999;68:87–94.Google Scholar
Walker, E, Katon, W, Harrop-Griffiths, J, et al. Relationship of chronic pelvic pain to psychiatric diagnoses and childhood sexual abuse. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:75–80.Google ScholarPubMed
Reiter, RC, Shakerin, LR, Gambone, JC, Milburn, AK. Correlation between sexual abuse and somatization in women with somatic and nonsomatic chronic pelvic pain. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991:165:104–109.Google Scholar
Draijer, N. Long-term psychosomatic consequences of child sexual abuse. In: van Hall, EV, Everaerd, W, eds. The Free Woman: Women's Health in the 1990s. Cornforth, UK: Parthenon Publishing Group;1989:969–709.Google Scholar
Irwin, C, Falsetti, SA, Lydiard, RB, et al. Comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder and irritable bowel syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:576–578.Google Scholar
Drossman, DA, Leserman, J, Nachman, G, et al. Sexual and physical abuse in women with functional or organic gastrointestinal disorders. Ann Intern Med 1990;113:828–833.Google Scholar
Imbierowicz, K, Egle, UT. Childhood adversities in patients with fibromyalgia and somatoform pain disorder. Eur J Pain 2003;7:113–119.Google Scholar
Alexander, RW, Bradley, LA, Alarcon, GS, et al. Sexual and physical abuse in women with fibromyalgia: association with outpatient health care utilization and pain medication usage. Arthritis Care Res 1998;11:102–115.Google Scholar
Walker, EA, Keegan, D, Gardner, G, et al. Psychosocial factors in fibromyalgia compared with rheumatoid arthritis: II. Sexual, physical and emotional abuse and neglect. Psychosom Med 1997;59:572–577.Google Scholar
Voisset-Pioro, MH, Esdaile, JM, Fitzcharles, M. Sexual and physical abuse in women with fibromyalgia syndrome. Arthritis Rheum 1995;38:235–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ciccone, DS, Elliott, DK, Chandler, HK, Nayak, S, Raphael, KG. Sexual and physical abuse in women with fibromyalgia syndrome: a test of the trauma hypothesis. Clin J Pain 2005;21:378–386.Google Scholar
Benbadis, SR. A spell in the epilepsy clinic and a history of “chronic pain” or “fibromyalgia” independently predict a diagnosis of psychogenic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2005;6:264–265.Google Scholar
Schur, EA, Afari, N, Furberg, H, et al. Feeling bias in more ways than one: comorbidity patterns of medically unexplained and psychiatric conditions. J Gen Intern Med 2007;22:818–821.Google Scholar
Amital, D, Fostick, L, Polliack, ML, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder, tenderness and fibromyalgia syndrome: are they different entities? J Psychosom Res 2006;61:663–669.Google Scholar
Seng, JS, Clark, MK, McCarthy, AM, Ronis, DL. PTSD and physical comorbidity among women receiving Medicaid: results from service-use data. J Trauma Stress 2006;19:45–56.Google Scholar
Briere, J, Runtz, M. Symptomatology associated with childhood sexual victimization in a nonclinical adult sample. Child Abuse Neglect 1988;12:51–59.Google Scholar
Polusny, MA, Follette, VM. Long-term correlates of child sexual abuse: theory and review of the empirical literature. Appl Prevent Psychol 1995;4:143–166.Google Scholar
Morrison, J. Childhood sexual histories in women with somatization disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:239–241.Google Scholar
Swartz, M, Blazer, D, George, L, Landerman, R. Somatization disorder in a community population. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:1403–1408.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edn. Text Revision (DSM-III-R). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.Google Scholar
Escobar, JI, Burnam, MA, Karno, M, Forsythe, A, Golding, JM. Somatization in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:713–718.Google Scholar
Wittchen, H, Essau, C, van Zerssen, D, Kreig, JC, Zaudig, M. Lifetime and six-month prevalence of mental disorders in the Munich follow-up study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992;241:247–258.Google Scholar
Watson, CG, Telliskjor, C. Interrelationships of conversion, psychogenic pain, and dissociative disorder symptoms. J Consult Clin Psychol 1982;1788–1789.Google Scholar
Kihlstrom, JF. One hundred years of hysteria. In: Lynn, SJ, Rhue, JW, eds. Dissociation: Clinical and Theoretical Perspectives. New York: Guildford Press; 1994:365–394.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES. The etiology and clinical course of pseudoseizures: relationship to trauma, depression and dissociation. Psychosomatics 1993;34:333–342.Google Scholar
Kuyk, J, Spinhoven, P, Van Emde Boas, MD, Van Dyck, R. Dissociation in temporal lobe epilepsy and pseudo-epileptic seizure patients. J Nerv Ment Dis 1999;187:713–720.Google Scholar
Nijenhuis, ERS, Spinhoven, P, van Dyck, R, van der Hart, O, Vanderlinden, J. The development of the somatoform dissociation questionnaire (SDQ-5) as a screening instrument for dissociative disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997;96:311–318.Google Scholar
Rauch, SL, van der Kolk, BA, Fisler, RE, et al. A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-driven imagery. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:380–387.Google Scholar
Schiffer, F, Teicher, MH, Papanicolou, AC. Evoked potential evidence for right brain activity during the recall of traumatic memories. J Neuropsychiatry 1995;7:169–175.Google Scholar
Aybek, S, Nicholson, TJ, Zelaya, F, et al. Neural correlates of recall of life events in conversion disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71:52–60.Google Scholar
Waldinger, RJ, Schulz, MS, Barsky, AJ, Ahern, DK. Mapping the road from childhood trauma to adult somatization: the role of attachment. Psychosom Med 2006;68:129–135.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG. New DSM-IV diagnosis of acute stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:1889–1891.Google Scholar
Vein, AM, Djukova, GM, Vorobieva, OV. Is panic attack a mask of psychogenic seizures? A comparative analysis of phenomenology of psychogenic seizures and panic attacks. Funct Neurol 1994;9:153–159.Google Scholar
Snyder, SI, Rosenbaum, DH, Rowan, AJ, et al. SCID diagnosis of panic disorder in psychogenic seizure patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994;6:261–266.Google Scholar
Russell, JL, Kushner, MG, Beitman, BD, Bartels, KM. Nonfearful panic disorder in neurology patients validated by lactate challenge. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:361–364.Google Scholar
Cunningham, J, Pearce, T, Pearce, P. Childhood sexual abuse and medical complaints in adult women. J Interpers Violence 1988;3:131–144.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Deluca, M, Machan, JT, Fava, JL. Traumatic brain injury and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures yield worse outcomes. Epilepsia 2013;54:718–725.Google Scholar
Van der Kolk, BA, McFarlane, AC, Weisaeth, L. Traumatic Stress. New York, London: Guilford Press; 1996:214–241, 279–302.Google Scholar
Van der Kolk, BA. The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind and Body in the Healing of Trauma. New York, NY: Viking Penguin; 2014.Google Scholar
Bracha, HS. Freeze–flight–fight–fright–faint: adaptationist perspective on the acute stress response spectrum. CNS Spectr 2004;9:679–685.Google Scholar
Bracha, HS, Yoshioka, DT, Masukawa, NK, Stockman, DJJ. Evolution of the human fear-circuitry and acute sociogenic pseudoneurological symptoms: the neolithic balanced-polymorphism hypothesis. J Affect Disord 2005;88:119–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bracha, HS, Bracha, AS, Williams, AE, Ralston, TC, Matsukawa, JM. The human fear-circuitry and fear-induced fainting in healthy individuals – the paleolithic-threat hypothesis. Clin Auton Res 2005;15:238–241.Google Scholar
Perry, BD, Pollard, RA, Blakley, TL, Bakr, WL, Vigilante, D. Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and “use-dependent” development of the brain: how “states” become “traits.” Infant Ment Health J 1995;16:271–291.Google Scholar
Porges, SW. The Polyvagal Theory: Neurophysiological Foundations of Emotions, Attachment, Communication, and Self-regulation. New York, NY: WW Norton Company; 2011.Google Scholar
Şar, V. The scope of dissociative disorders: an international perspective. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2006;29:227–245.Google Scholar

References

LaFrance, WC Jr., Devinsky, O. The treatment of non-epileptic seizures: historical perspectives and future directions. Epilepsia 2004;45 (Suppl 2):15–21.Google Scholar
Kanner, AM. Epilepsy and mood disorders. Epilepsia 2007;48 (Suppl 9):20–22.Google Scholar
Syed, TU, LaFrance, WC Jr., Kahriman, ES, et al. Can semiology predict psychogenic non-epileptic seizures? A prospective study. Ann Neurol 2011;69:997–1004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benbadis, SR, Agrawal, V, Tatum, WO. How many patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures also have epilepsy? Neurology 2001;57:915–917.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Curr Opin Neurol 2008;21:195–201.Google Scholar
Reuber, M. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: answers and questions. Epilepsy Behav 2008;12:622–635.Google Scholar
Galimberti, CA, Ratti, MT, Murelli, R, et al. Patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, alone or epilepsy-associated, share a psychological profile distinct from that of epilepsy patients. J Neurol 2003;250:338–346.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edn. (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). American Psychiatric Association, 2000.Google Scholar
van der Kruijs, SJ, Jagannathan, SR, Bodde, NM, et al. Resting-state networks and dissociation in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. J Psychiatr Res 2014;54:126–133.Google Scholar
Ding, JR, An, D, Liao, W, et al. Altered functional and structural connectivity networks in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. PLoS One 2013;8:e63850.Google Scholar
Kanner, AM. Is the neurologist's role over once the diagnosis of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures is made? No! Epilepsy Behav 2008;12:1–2.Google Scholar
Marchetti, RL, Kurcgant, D, Neto, JG, et al. Psychiatric diagnoses of patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Seizure 2008;17:247–253.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines, 1st edn. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 1992.Google Scholar
Snyder, SL, Rosenbaum, DH, Rowan, AJ, Strain, JJ. SCID diagnosis of panic disorder in psychogenic seizure patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994;6:261–266.Google Scholar
Bowman, ES, Markand, ON. Psychodynamics and psychiatric diagnoses of pseudoseizure subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:57–63.Google Scholar
Alper, K, Devinsky, O, Perrine, K, Vazquez, B, Luciano, D. Psychiatric classification of nonconversion non-epileptic seizures. Arch Neurol 1995;52:199–201.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Baker, GA, Duncan, R, Goldstein, LH, Reuber, M. Minimum requirements for the diagnosis of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a staged approach. A report from the International League Against Epilepsy Nonepileptic Seizures Task Force. Epilepsia 2013;54:2005–2018.Google Scholar
Turner, K, Piazzini, A, Chiesa, V, et al. Patients with epilepsy and patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: video-EEG, clinical and neuropsychological evaluation. Seizure 2011;20:706–710.Google Scholar
Patidar, Y, Gupta, M, Khwaja, GA, et al. Clinical profile of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures in adults: a study of 63 cases. Ann Indian Acad Neurol 2013;16:157–162.Google Scholar
Hovorka, J, Nezadal, T, Herman, E, Nemcova, I, Bajacek, M. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, prospective clinical experience: diagnosis, clinical features, risk factors, psychiatric comorbidity, treatment outcome. Epileptic Disord 2007;9 Suppl 1:S52–58.Google Scholar
Scevola, L, Teitelbaum, J, Oddo, S, et al. Psychiatric disorders in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures and drug-resistant epilepsy: a study of an Argentine population. Epilepsy Behav 2013;29:155–160.Google Scholar
Farnam, A, Goreishizadeh, MA, Farhang, S, Abdolaliyan, F. High prevalence of depression among Iranian patients with first onset pseudoseizures. Indian J Psychiatry 2008;50:266–268.Google Scholar
Kuyk, J, Swinkels, WA, Spinhoven, P. Psychopathologies in patients with non-epileptic seizures with and without comorbid epilepsy: how different are they? Epilepsy Behav 2003;4:13–18.Google Scholar
Andrade, L, Caraveo-Anduaga, JJ, Berglund, P, et al. The epidemiology of major depressive episodes: results from the International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology (ICPE) Surveys. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 2003;12:3–21.Google Scholar
Ohayon, MM. Epidemiology of depression and its treatment in the general population. J Psychiatr Res 2007;41:207–213.Google Scholar
Arnold, LM, Privitera, MD. Psychopathology and trauma in epileptic and psychogenic seizure patients. Psychosomatics 1996;37:438–443.Google Scholar
Mökleby, K, Blomhoff, S, Malt, UF, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity and hostility in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures compared with somatoform disorders and healthy controls. Epilepsia 2002;43:193–198.Google Scholar
D'Alessio, L, Giagante, B, Oddo, S, et al. Psychiatric disorders in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, with and without comorbid epilepsy. Seizure 2006;15:333–339.Google Scholar
Strutt, AM, Hill, SW, Scott, BM, Uber-Zak, L, Fogel, TG. A comprehensive neuropsychological profile of women with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2011;20:24–28.Google Scholar
Kanner, AM, Parra, J, Frey, M, et al. Psychiatric and neurologic predictors of psychogenic pseudoseizure outcome. Neurology 1999;53:933–938.Google Scholar
Ohayon, MM. Anxiety disorders: prevalence, comorbidity and outcomes. J Psychiatr Res 2006;40:475–476.Google Scholar
Fiszman, A, Alves-Leon, SV, Nunes, RG, D'Andrea, I, Figueira, I. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a critical review. Epilepsy Behav 2004;5:818–825.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Kanner, AM, Hermann, B. Psychiatric comorbidities in epilepsy. Int Rev Neurobiol 2008;83:347–383.Google Scholar
Kanner, AM, Barry, JJ, Gilliam, F, Hermann, B, Meador, KJ. Anxiety disorders, subsyndromic depressive episodes, and major depressive episodes: do they differ on their impact on the quality of life of patients with epilepsy? Epilepsia 2010;51:1152–1158.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Syc, S. Depression and symptoms affect quality of life in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. Neurology 2009;73:366–371.Google Scholar
Baslet, G, Roiko, A, Prensky, E. Heterogeneity in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: understanding the role of psychiatric and neurological factors. Epilepsy Behav 2010;17:236–241.Google Scholar
Kim-Cohen, J, Moffitt, TE, Taylor, A, Pawlby, SJ, Caspi, A. Maternal depression and children's antisocial behavior: nature and nurture effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:173–181.Google Scholar
Fassino, S, Amianto, F, Gastaldi, F, et al. Personality trait interactions in parents of patients with borderline personality disorder: a controlled study using the Temperament and Character Inventory. Psychiatry Res 2009;165:128–136.Google Scholar
Skodol, AE. Longitudinal course and outcome of personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2008;31:495–503, viii.Google Scholar
Lacey, C, Cook, M, Salzberg, M. The neurologist, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, and borderline personality disorder. Epilepsy Behav 2007;11:492–498.Google Scholar
Reuber, M, Pukrop, R, Bauer, J, Derfuss, R, Elger, CE. Multidimensional assessment of personality in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:743–748.Google Scholar
Owczarek, K. Anxiety as a differential factor in epileptic versus psychogenic pseudoepileptic seizures. Epilepsy Res 2003;52:227–232.Google Scholar
Dodrill, C, Holmes, M. Psychological and neuropsychological evaluation of the patient with non-epileptic seizures. In: Gates, J, Rowan, A, eds. Non-Epileptic Seizures, 1st edn. Stoneham, MA: Butterworth-Heinmann, 2000;169–181.Google Scholar
Cragar, DE, Berry, DT, Fakhoury, TA, Cibula, JE, Schmitt, FA. A review of diagnostic techniques in the differential diagnosis of epileptic and non-epileptic seizures. Neuropsychol Rev 2002;12:31–64.Google Scholar
Cuthill, FM, Espie, CA. Sensitivity and specificity of procedures for the differential diagnosis of epileptic and non-epileptic seizures: a systematic review. Seizure 2005;14:293–303.Google Scholar
First, M, Gobbon, M, Spitzer, R, Williams, J, Benjamin, L. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II), 1st edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Binzer, M, Stone, J, Sharpe, M. Recent onset pseudoseizures – clues to aetiology. Seizure 2004;13:146–155.Google Scholar
Coid, J, Yang, M, Tyrer, P, Roberts, A, Ullrich, S. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain. Br J Psychiatry 2006;188:423–431.Google Scholar
Baillés, E, Pintor, L, Fernandez-Egea, E, et al. Psychiatric disorders, trauma, and MMPI profile in a Spanish sample of non-epileptic seizure patients. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2004;26:310–315.Google Scholar
Harden, CL, Jovine, L, Burgut, FT, et al. A comparison of personality disorder characteristics of patients with non-epileptic psychogenic pseudoseizures with those of patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2009;14:481–483.Google Scholar
Paris, J. The treatment of borderline personality disorder: implications of research on diagnosis, etiology, and outcome. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2009;5:277–290.Google Scholar
Sharpe, D, Faye, C. Non-epileptic seizures and child sexual abuse: a critical review of the literature. Clin Psychol Rev 2006;26:1020–1040.Google Scholar
Duncan, R, Oto, M. Predictors of antecedent factors in psychogenic non-epileptic attacks: multivariate analysis. Neurology 2008;71:1000–1005.Google Scholar
Slavney, PR. Pseudoseizures, sexual abuse, and hermeneutic reasoning. Compr Psychiatry 1994;35:471–477.Google Scholar
Salmon, P, Skaife, K, Rhodes, J. Abuse, dissociation, and somatization in irritable bowel syndrome: towards an explanatory model. J Behav Med 2003;26:1–18.Google Scholar
Salmon, P, Al-Marzooqi, SM, Baker, G, Reilly, J. Childhood family dysfunction and associated abuse in patients with non-epileptic seizures: towards a causal model. Psychosom Med 2003;65:695–700.Google Scholar
Zanarini, MC. Childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2000;23:89–101.Google Scholar
Thorpe, M. Is borderline personality disorder a post-traumatic stress disorder of early childhood? Can J Psychiatry 1993;38:367–368.Google Scholar
Golier, JA, Yehuda, R, Bierer, LM, et al. The relationship of borderline personality disorder to posttraumatic stress disorder and traumatic events. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:2018–2024.Google Scholar
Roth, S, Newman, E, Pelcovitz, D, van der Kolk, B, Mandel, FS. Complex PTSD in victims exposed to sexual and physical abuse: results from the DSM-IV Field Trial for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. J Trauma Stress 1997;10:539–555.Google Scholar
van der Kolk, BA, Roth, S, Pelcovitz, D, Sunday, S, Spinazzola, J. Disorders of extreme stress: the empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. J Trauma Stress 2005;18:389–399.Google Scholar
van der Kolk, BA, Pelcovitz, D, Roth, S, et al. Dissociation, somatization, and affect dysregulation: the complexity of adaptation of trauma. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153 (7 Suppl):83–93.Google Scholar
Herman, J. Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror, 1st edn. New York: Basic Books, 1997.Google Scholar
Bass, C, Murphy, M. Somatoform and personality disorders: syndromal comorbidity and overlapping developmental pathways. J Psychosom Res 1995;39:403–427.Google Scholar
Sar, V, Akyuz, G, Kundakci, T, Kiziltan, E, Dogan, O. Childhood trauma, dissociation, and psychiatric comorbidity in patients with conversion disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:2271–2276.Google Scholar
Bisson, JI, Ehlers, A, Matthews, R, et al. Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2007;190:97–104.Google Scholar
Mendes, DD, Mello, MF, Ventura, P, Passarela Cde, M, Mari Jde, J. A systematic review on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Int J Psychiatry Med 2008;38:241–259.Google Scholar
Ford, JD, Courtois, CA, Steele, K, Hart, O, Nijenhuis, ER. Treatment of complex posttraumatic self-dysregulation. J Trauma Stress 2005;18:437–447.Google Scholar
Baslet, G. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a model of their pathogenic mechanism. Seizure 2011;20:1–13.Google Scholar
Salinsky, M, Evrard, C, Storzbach, D, Pugh, MJ. Psychiatric comorbidity in veterans with psychogenic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2012;25:345–349.Google Scholar
LaFrance, WC Jr., Baird, GL, Barry, JJ, et al. Multicenter pilot treatment trial for psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71:997–1005.Google Scholar
Direk, N, Kulaksizoglu, IB, Alpay, K, Gurses, C. Using personality disorders to distinguish between patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures and those with epileptic seizures. Epilepsy Behav 2012;23:138–141.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×