6 - Cranial nerves and neurotology
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 08 February 2010
Summary
Introduction
This chapter concerns disorders of cranial nerves and the vestibular system. Disorders of cranial nerves include paresis and paralysis of motor nerves such as facial palsy, and hyperactivity of motor nerves such as hemifacial spasm (HFS). Trigeminal and glossopharyngeal neuralgia (TGN and GPN) are hyperactivity of sensory systems that results in pain (neuralgia). Disorders of cranial nerves such as HFS, TGN and GPN are known as “vascular compression disorders” because they can be effectively cured by moving a blood vessel off the respective cranial nerve root (microvascular decompression (MVD) [109, 111]. The pathophysiology of HFS is discussed in detail in this chapter because it serves as a model of other hyperkinetic disorders. The pathophysiologies of other disorders that can be cured by MVD are also discussed. Other disorders of nerves such as those that are caused by inflammation and injuries of nerves are discussed in Chapter 2.
The vestibular system provides proprioceptive input to the motor system via the vestibulospinal tract, and this input aids in voluntary body movements as well as in automatic functions like keeping posture, as was discussed in Chapter 5. In this chapter, we will discuss disorders that are associated with the vestibular system such as benign paroxysmal vertigo (BPPV). A disorder of the vestibular system that is associated with vascular compression of the vestibular nerve (DPV) will also be discussed in this chapter. Ménière's disease affects both the vestibular and the auditory system.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Neural Plasticity and Disorders of the Nervous System , pp. 330 - 385Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2006
References
Adams, C. B. T., The Physiology and Pathophysiology of Posterior Fossa Cranial Nerve Dysfunction Syndromes: Non Microvascular Perspective, in Neurosurgical Topics Book 13, ‘Surgery of Cranial Nerves of the Posterior Fossa,’, Editor. 1993, American Association of Neurological Surgeons: Park Ridge, Illinois. pp. 131–154.Google Scholar
, , and , Prevalence of Concurrent Diabetes Mellitus and Idiopathic Facial Paralysis (Bell's Palsy). Diabetes, 1975. 24(5): pp. 449–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Mona Lisa Syndrome: Solving the Enigma of the Gioconda Smile. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol., 1989. 98(3): pp. 196–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Decompression for Bell's Palsy: Why I Don't Do It. European Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol., 2002. 259(1): pp. 40–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, A Comparison of Percutaneous Radiofrequency Trigeminal Neurolysis and Microvascular Decompression of the Trigeminal Nerve for Treatment of Tic Douloureux. Neurosurgery, 1977(1): pp. 16–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Hemifacial Spasm in Rochester and Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1960 to 1984. Arch. Neurol., 1990(47): pp. 1233–1234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Hemimasticatory Spasm: Clinical and Electrophysiologic Observations. Neurology, 1992. 42(12): pp. 2263–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Dizziness, Hearing Loss, and Tinnitus: Essentials of Neurology. 1984, F. A. Davis: Philadelphia.Google Scholar
and , Clinical Neurophysiology of the Vestibular System. 1990, F. A. Davis Company: Philadelphia.Google Scholar
, , , , and , Microvascular Decompression for Hemifacial Spasm. J. Neurosurg., 1995. 82: pp. 201–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , and , The Long-Term Outcome of Microvascular Decompression for Trigeminal Neuralgia. N. Eng. J. Med., 1996. 334: pp. 1077–1083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Predicting the Stability and Growth of Acoustic Neuromas. Otol. Neurotol., 2002. 23: pp. 542–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Pathophysiology of Blepharospasm and Oromandibular Dystonia. Brain, 1985. 108: pp. 593–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Observations on the Morphology at the Transition Between the Peripheral and the Central Nervous System in the Cat. II General Organization of the Transitional Region in S1 Dorsal Rootlets. Acta Physiol. Scand, 1977. Suppl. 446: pp. 23–42.Google ScholarPubMed
, , and , Vestibular Syndrome and Vascular Anomaly in the Cerebello-Pontine Angle. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh), 1977(3): pp. 187–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boivie, J., Central Pain, in Textbook of Pain, and , Editors. 1999, Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh. pp. 879–914.Google Scholar
, On the Neuronal Organization of the Acoustic Middle Ear Reflex. A Physiological and Anatomical Study. Brain Res, 1973. 49: pp. 101–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Facial Neuromuscular Retraining for Oral Synkinesis. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 1997. 99(7): pp. 1922–1931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Therapy for Benign Paroxysmal Positioning Vertigo, Revisted. Neurology, 1994. 44: pp. 796–800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Anomalous Cross-Modal Plasticity Following Posterior Fossa Surgery: Some Speculations on Gaze-Evoked Tinnitus. Hear. Res., 1994. 81: pp. 22–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , and , Acoustic Neuroma/Vestibular Schwannoma Growth: Past, Present and Future. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh), 1998. 118: pp. 327–32.Google ScholarPubMed
, , , , and , Familial Hemifacial Spasm Associated with Arterial Compression of the Facial Nerve. J. Neurosurg., 1991. 74(290–296).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Major Trigeminal Neuralgias and Their Surgical Treatment Based on Experience with 332 Gasserian Operations. Am. J. Med. Sci., 1920(160): pp. 158–184.Google Scholar
, Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia (Tic Douloureux) Its Diagnosis and Treatment. Arch Surg, 1927(15): pp. 198–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, An Operation for the Cure of Tic Douloureux. Partial Section of the Sensory Root at the Pons. Arch Surg, 1929(18): pp. 687–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia by the Cerebellar Route. Ann Surg, 1932(96): pp. 787–795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Concerning the Cause of Trigeminal Neuralgia. Am. J. Surg., 1934(24): pp. 447–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Role of the Amygdala in Fear and Anxiety. Ann. Rev. Neurosci, 1992. 15: pp. 353–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Control of Symptoms in Patients with Ménière's Disease Using Middle Ear Pressure Applications: Two Years Follow-Up. Acta Otolaryng. (Stockh.), 2001. 121: pp. 616–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devor, M., The Pathophysiology of Damaged Peripheral Nerves, in Textbook of Pain, and , Editors. 1994, Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh. pp. 79–100.Google Scholar
and , Primary and Revision Surgery (Selective Neurectomy) for Facial Hyperkinesis. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 1986(112): pp. 154–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Der Spasmus Facialis – Eine Parabiosserscheinung: Elektrophysiologische Untersuchnungen Zum Enstehungsmechanismus Des Facialisspasmus. Dtsch. Z. Nervenheil., 1957. 176: pp. 149–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Primary Hemifacial Spasm: A Neurophysiological Study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych., 1986. 49: pp. 58–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Hemifacial Spasm and the Facial Nucleus. Ann. Neurol., 1978. 4: pp. 97–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , The Surgical Treatment of Facial Hyperkinesis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 1972(5): pp. 400–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , Treatment of Neurogenic Torticollis by Microvascular Lysis of the Accessory Nerve Roots: Indication, Technique, and First Results. Acta Neurochir. (Wien), 1981(59): pp. 167–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , and , Benign Positional Vertigo: Incidence and Prognosis in a Population-Based Study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 1991. 66(6): pp. 596–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fromm, G., Medical Treatment of Patients with Trigeminal Neuralgia, in Trigeminal Neuralgia. and , Editors. 1991, Butterworth- Heinemann: Boston. pp. 133–144.Google Scholar
, , , and , Role of Inhibitory Mechanisms in Trigeminal Neuralgia. Neurology, 1981. 31: pp. 683–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Effects of Different Classes of Antiepileptic Drugs on Brain-Stem Pathways. Fed. Proc., 1985. 44: pp. 2432–2435.Google ScholarPubMed
Fromm, G. H., Pathophysiology of Trigeminal Neuralgia, in Trigeminal Neuralgia, and , Editors. 1991, Butterworth-Heinemann: Boston. pp. 105–130.Google Scholar
and , Response of Trigeminal Neuralgia to “Decompression” of Sensory Root. JAMA, 1959(170): pp. 1773–1776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Crosstalk – the Paradoxical Transmission of a Nerve Impulse. Arch. Neurol., 1966(14): pp. 149–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Concerning the Mechanism of Trigeminal Neuralgia and Hemifacial Spasm. J. Neurosurg., 1962(19): pp. 947–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Hemifacial Spasm – a Reversible Pathophysiologic State. J. Neurosurg., 1962(19): pp. 240–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Amygdaloid Stimulation and Learning in the Rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 1964. 58: pp. 23–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Electrodiagnosis of Neuromuscular Diseases. 1983, Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore.Google Scholar
and , Atypical Facial Pain and Other Pain Syndromes. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America, 1997. 8(1): pp. 87–100.Google ScholarPubMed
, , and , Fibre Interaction in Injured or Compressed Region of Nerve. Brain, 1944(67): pp. 125–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grundy, B., Evoked Potentials Monitoring, in Monitoring in Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine., , Editor. 1985, Churchill-Livingstone: New York. pp. 345–411.Google Scholar
and , Intraoperative Monitoring of the Facial Nerve During Decompressive Surgery for Hemifacial Spasm. J. Neurosurg., 1991(74): pp. 254–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Trigeminal Neuralgia Treated by Injection of Glycerol into the Trigeminal Cistern. Neurosurgery, 1981(9): pp. 638–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , and , Update on Conservative Management of Acoustic Neuroma. Otol. Neurotol., 2001. 22: pp. 682–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Tinnitus: Surgical Treatment, in Tinnitus (Ciba Foundation Symposium 85). 1981, Pitman Books Ltd.: London.Google Scholar
, , , , , , and , Electrophysiological Investigation of Hemifacial Spasm after Microvascular Decompression: F Waves of the Facial Muscles, Blink Reflexes, and Abnormal Muscle Responses. J. Neurosurg., 1997. 86: pp. 654–661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Migraine and Benign Positional Vertigo. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol., 2000. 109: pp. 377–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Electrophysiological Study on Hemifacial Spasm – Usefulness in Etiological Diagnosis and Pathophysiological Mechanism. Brain Nerve (Tokyo), 1989. 41: pp. 1005–1011.Google ScholarPubMed
Jackler, R. K., Acoustic Neuroma (Vestibular Schwannoma), in Neurotology, and , Editors. 1994, Mosby: St. Louis. pp. 729–785.Google Scholar
and , Bell's Palsy: A Theory as to Etiology. Observations in Six Patients Treated by Microsurgical Relief of Neurovascular Compression. Laryngoscope, 1978. 88(5): pp. 849–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Arterial Compression of the Trigeminal Nerve at the Pons in Patients with Trigeminal Neuralgia. J. Neurosurg., 1967. 26: pp. 169–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Microsurgical Exploration and Decompression of the Facial Nerve in Hemifacial Spasm. Curr. Top. Surg. Res., 1970(2): pp. 217–222.Google Scholar
, Neurovascular Cross Compression in Patients with Hyperactive Dysfunction Symptoms of the Eighth Cranial Nerve. Surg. Forum, 1975. 26: pp. 467–469.Google ScholarPubMed
, Observations on the Etiology of Trigeminal Neuralgia, Hemifacial Spasm, Acoustic Nerve Dysfunction and Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia. Definitive Microsurgical Treatment and Results in 117 Patients. Neurochir. (Stuttg), 1977(20): pp. 145–154.Google ScholarPubMed
, Neurovascular Compression in Cranial Nerve and Systemic Disease. Ann. Surg., 1980(192): pp. 518–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Hemifacial Spasm Caused by a Venule: Case Report. Neurosurg., 1984. 14: pp. 89–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Disabling Positional Vertigo. New Engl. J. Med., 1984(310): pp. 1700–1705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , E. Bergstralh, and L. Kurland, Incidence and Clinical Features of Trigeminal Neuralgia, Rochester, Minnesota 1945–1984. Ann Neurol, 1990(27): pp. 89–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Masticatory Spasm in Facial Hemiatrophy. Ann. Neurol., 1980. 7: pp. 585–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Adaptive Modification of Central Vestibular Neurons in Response to Visual Stimulation through Reversing Prisms. J. Neurophys., 1979. 42(3): pp. 896–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Generation of Smooth-Pursuit Eye Movements: Neuronal Mechanisms and Pathways. Neurosci. Res., 1991. 11(2): pp. 79–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Evidence of a Peripheral Etiology of Trigeminal Neuralgia. J. Neurosurg., 1967. 26(1): pp. 168–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Electrodiagnosis in Diseases of Nerve and Muscle: Principles and Practice. 1989, F. A. Davis Company: Philadelphia.Google Scholar
, , and , Studies of Trigeminal Nerve Potentials in Normal Compared to Abnormal Experimental Preparations. J. Neurosurg., 1956(13): pp. 176–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Adaptive Plasticity in the Otolith-Ocular Reflex. Auris, Nasus, Larynx., 2003. 30(Suppl): pp. 3–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Oculomotor Palsy with Cyclic Spasms: Electromyographic and Electron Microscopic Evidence of Chronic Peripheral Neuronal Involvement. Neuro-Ophthalmol., 1988. 8: pp. 9–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , Microvascular Decompression of Cranial Nerves, Particularly of the Seventh Cranial Nerve. Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo), 1980. 20: pp. 739–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Stereotactic Radiosurgery for the Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia. Clin. J. Pain, 2002. 18(1): pp. 42–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreutzberg, G. W., Neurobiology of Regeneration and Degeneration the Facial Nerve, in The Facial Nerve, , Editor. 1986, Thieme: New York.Google Scholar
and , Facial Nerve Demyelination and Vascular Compression Are Both Needed to Induce Facial Hyperactivity: A Study in Rats. Acta Neurochir. (Wien), 1994. 126: pp. 149–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Clinical Anatomy of the Posterior Cranial Fossa and Its Foramina. 1981, Thieme Verlag: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Lang, J., Facial and Vestibulocochlear Nerve, Topographic Anatomy and Variations. The Cranial Nerves. and , Editors. 1981, Springer-Verlag: New York. pp. 363–377.Google Scholar
, Anatomy of the Brainstem and the Lower Cranial Nerves, Vessels, and Surrounding Structures. Am. J. Otol., 1985: pp. 1–19.Google ScholarPubMed
, Efficacy and Complications of Microvascular Decompression: A Review. Neurosurg. Quart., 1997.Google Scholar
and , Surgical Treatment of Geniculate Neuralgia. Am. J. Otol., 1997. 18(4): pp. 512–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Marion, M.-H., Hemifacial Spasm: Treatment with Botulinum Toxin (Long Term Results), in Hemifacial Spasm. A Multidisciplinary Approach, , , and , Editors. 1997, Springer: Wien. pp. 141–144.Google Scholar
, , , and , Facial Nerve Biopsy for Etiologic Clarification of Bell's Palsy. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. Suppl., 1988. 137: pp. 22–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Arteries in Contact with the Cisternal Portion of the Facial Nerve in Autopsy Cases: Microsurgical Anatomy for Neurovascular Decompression Surgery of Hemifacial Spasm. Surg. Neurol., 1990. 34: pp. 87–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Management of Hyperfunction of the Facial Nerve. Ann. Otol. Rhin. Laryng., 1970(79): pp. 252–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Acoustic Reflex in Man. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 1962. 34(2): pp. 1524–1534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , On the Origin of Synkinesis in Hemifacial Spasm: Results of Intracranial Recordings. J. Neurosurg., 1984. 61: pp. 569–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Microvascular Decompression in Hemifacial Spasm: Intraoperative Electrophysiological Observations. Neurosurgery, 1985. 16: pp. 612–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Synkinesis in Hemifacial Spasm: Results of Recording Intracranially from the Facial Nerve. Experientia, 1985. 41: pp. 415–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Blink Reflex in Patients with Hemifacial Spasm: Observations During Microvascular Decompression Operations. J. Neurol. Sci., 1986. 72: pp. 171–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Physiological Abnormalities in Hemifacial Spasm Studied During Microvascular Decompression Operations. Exp. Neurol., 1986. 93: pp. 584–600.Google Scholar
, Hemifacial Spasm: Ephaptic Transmission or Hyperexcitability of the Facial Motor Nucleus?Exp. Neurol., 1987. 98: pp. 110–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
M⊘ller, A. R., Electrophysiological Monitoring of Cranial Nerves in Operations in the Skull Base, in Tumors of the Cranial Base: Diagnosis and Treatment, and , Editors. 1987, Futura Publishing Co: Mt. Kisco, New York. pp. 123–132.Google Scholar
and , Monitoring Facial Emg During Microvascular Decompression Operations for Hemifacial Spasm. J. Neurosurg., 1987. 66: pp. 681–685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Intraoperative Monitoring of Evoked Potentials. 1988, Williams and Wilkins: Baltimore.Google Scholar
and , Does Intraoperative Monitoring of Auditory Evoked Potentials Reduce Incidence of Hearing Loss as a Complication of Microvascular Decompression of Cranial Nerves?Neurosurgery, 1989. 24: pp. 257–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Interaction between the Blink Reflex and the Abnormal Muscle Response in Patients with Hemifacial Spasm: Results of Intraoperative Recordings. J. Neurol. Sci., 1991. 101: pp. 114–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Cranial Nerve Vascular Compression Syndrome: I. A Review of Treatment. Acta Neurochir. (Wien), 1991. 113: pp. 18–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
M⊘ller, A. R., Cranial Nerve Dysfunction Syndromes: Pathophysiology of Microvascular Compression., in Neurosurgical Topics Book 13, ‘Surgery of Cranial Nerves of the Posterior Fossa,’ Chapter 2, , Editor. 1993, American Association of Neurological Surgeons: Park Ridge. IL. pp. 105–129.Google Scholar
, Intraoperative Neurophysiologic Monitoring. 1995, Harwood Academic Publishers: Luxembourg.Google Scholar
, Vascular Compression of Cranial Nerves. II: History of the Microvascular Decompression Operation. Neurol. Res., 1998. 20: pp. 727–731.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Vascular Compression of Cranial Nerves. II. Pathophysiology. Neurol. Res., 1999. 21: pp. 439–443.Google Scholar
and , Audiometric Abnormalities in Hemifacial Spasm. Audiology, 1985. 24: pp. 396–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , Diagnosis and Surgical Treatment of Disabling Positional Vertigo. J Neurosurg, 1986(64): pp. 21–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
M⊘ller, M. B., Vascular Compression of the Eighth Nerve as a Cause of Tinnitus, in Proceedings of the Iii International Tinnitus Seminar, Munster, Western Germany, June 11–13, 1987, Editor. 1987, Harsch Verlag: Karlsruhe, West Germany. pp. 340–347.Google Scholar
M⊘ller, M. B., Disabling Positional Vertigo, in Advances in Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, , et al., Editors. 1990, Mosby Year Book, Inc.: Chicago, Illinois,. pp. 81–106.Google Scholar
, Results of Microvascular Decompression of the Eighth Nerve as Treatment for Disabling Positional Vertigo. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol., 1990. 99: pp. 724–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
M⊘ller, M. B. and A. R. M⊘ller, Vascular Compression Syndrome of the Eighth Nerve: Clinical Correlations and Surgical Findings, in Neurologic Clinics: Diagnostic Neurotology and Otoneurology, and , Editors. 1990, WB Saunders Publishing Co: Philadelphia. pp. 421–439.Google Scholar
, , , and , Vascular Decompression Surgery for Severe Tinnitus: Selection Criteria and Results. Laryngoscope, 1993. 103: pp. 421–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Microvascular Decompression of the Eighth Nerve in Patients with Disabling Positional Vertigo: Selection Criteria and Operative Results in 207 Patients. Acta Neurochir. (Wien), 1993. 125: pp. 75–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Surgical Treatment of Spasmodic Torticollis: Effectiveness of Microvascular Decompression. Brain Nerve (Tokyo), 1989. 41: pp. 97–102.Google ScholarPubMed
, , and , Electromyographic Analysis of Spasmodic Torticollis. Tenth Meeting of the World Society for Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery. Abstract, 1989.Google Scholar
, , , , , and , An Exteroceptive Reflex in the Sternocleidomastoid Muscle Produced by Electrical Stimulation of the Supraorbital Nerve in Normal Subjects and Patients with Spasmodic Torticollis. Neurology, 1989. 39: pp. 1354–1358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Pathophysiological Aspects of Hemifacial Spasm. Part I. Evidence of Ectopic Excitation and Ephaptic Transmission. Neurology, 1984(34): pp. 418–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Pathophysiology of Hemifacial Spasm: II. Lateral Spread of the Supraorbital Nerve Reflex. Neurology, 1984. 34: pp. 427–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Quality of Life after Acoustic Neuroma Surgery. Laryngoscope, 1998. 108(9): pp. 1382–1385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Acoustic Neuroma Management: An Evidence-Based Medicine Approach. Otol. Neurotol., 2002. 23: pp. 534–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Vestibulo-Oculomotor Disturbances in Trigeminal Neuralgia and Hemifacial Spasm. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh), 1988. 105: pp. 570–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ollat, H., Pharmacology of Hemifacial Spasm, in Hemifacial Spasm: A Multidisciplinary Approach, , , and , Editors. 1997, Springer-Verlag: Wien.Google Scholar
and , Electromyographic and Reflex Study in Ideopathic and Symptomatic Trigeminal Neuralgias: Latency of the Jaw and Blink Reflexes. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych., 1974. 37: pp. 1225–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ouaknine, G. E., Microsurgical Anatomy of the Arterial Loops in the Ponto-Cerebellar Angle and the Internal Acoustic Meatus, in The Cranial Nerves, and , Editors. 1981, Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg. pp. 378–390.Google Scholar
and , Particle Repositioning Maneuver for Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol., 1993. 102: pp. 325–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , The Association of Hemifacial Spasm and Facial Pain. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1989. 52: pp. 663–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Role of the Different Frontal Lobe Areas in the Control of the Horizontal Component of Memory-Guided Saccades in Man. Exp. Brain Res., 1993. 95(1): pp. 166–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Podivinsky, F., Torticollis, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Diseases of the Basal Ganglia, and , Editors. 1968, North Holland Publishing Co: New York. pp. 567–603.Google Scholar
, Idiopathic Hemifacial Spasm. Ann. Otol. Rhin. Laryng., 1972(81): pp. 664–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Early Decompression of the Facial Nerve in Bell's Palsy. Ann. Otol. Rhinol.Laryngol., 1981. 90(6): pp. 570–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Total Facial Nerve Decompression: Technique to Avoid Complications. Ear, Nose, & Throat Journal, 1996. 75(7): pp. 410–415.Google ScholarPubMed
, Geniculate Neuralgia: Long Term Results of Surgical Treatment. Ear, Nose, & Throat Journal, 2002. 81(1): pp. 30–3.Google ScholarPubMed
and , Facial Nerve Preservation by Posterior Fossa Transmeatal Microdissection in Total Removal of Acoustic Tumours. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat., 1965(28): pp. 311–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ephaptic Transmission between Single Nerve Fibers in the Spinal Nerve Roots of Dystrophic Mice. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 1980. 305: pp. 151–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Ramsay Hunt Facial Paralysis: Clinical Analyses of 185 Patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 1986. 95(3): pp. 292–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Electron Microscopic Observation of the Nucleus, Glial Dome, and Meninges of the Rat Acoustic Nerve. Am. J. Anat., 1971. 130: pp. 73–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Hemifacial Spasm: Ultrastructural Changes in the Facial Nerve Induced by Neurovascular Compression. Surg. Neurol., 1975. 4(369–370).Google ScholarPubMed
, , and , Geniculate Neuralgia: The Surgical Management of Primary Otalgia. J. Neurosurg., 1992. 75(4): pp. 505–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Neurovascular Compression Syndrome of the Eighth Cranial Nerve. Can the Site of Compression Explain the Symptoms?Acta Neurochir, 1999. 141: pp. 495–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Chronic Electrical Stimulation of the Facial Nerve Causes Signs of Facial Nucleus Hyperactivity. Neurol. Res., 1993. 15: pp. 225–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Abnormal Response from the Sternocleidomastoid Muscle in Patients with Spasmodic Torticollis: Observations During Microvascular Decompression Operations. Acta Neurochir (Wien), 1993. 124: pp. 92–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Baclofen in Hemifacial Spasm. Int. J. Neurosci., 1987. 33: pp. 261–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Microvascular Compression Syndromes: Clinical Features and Audiovestibular Findings. Laryngoscope, 1992. 102: pp. 1020–1029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Operative Management of Tumors Involving the Cavernous Sinus. J. Neurosurg., 1986(64): pp. 879–889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Vestibular Nerve Injury as a Complication of Microvascular Decompression. Neurosurgery, 1991(29): pp. 773–775.Google ScholarPubMed
and , Radiologic Surveillance of Acoustic Neuromas. Am. J. Otol., 1998. 19: pp. 846–849.Google ScholarPubMed
and , Ephaptic Transmission in Chronically Damaged Peripheral Nerves. Neurology, 1979. 29: pp. 1061–1064.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Signs of Hemifacial Spasm Created by Chronic Periodic Stimulation of the Facial Nerve in the Rat. Exp. Neurol., 1987. 98: pp. 336–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Spasmodic Torticollis Caused by Vascular Compression of the Spinal Accessory Root. Surg. Neurol., 1986. 26: pp. 431–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Rapid Changes in Protein Synthesis and Cell Size in the Cochlear Nucleus Following Eighth Nerve Activity Blockade and Cochlea Ablation. J. Comp. Neurol., 1992. 320: pp. 501–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Conservative Management of Acoustic Neuroma in the Elderly Patients. Laryngoscope, 1985. 95: pp. 766–770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Microvascular Decompression (Microvascular decompression) in Trigeminal and Glosso-Vago-Pharyngeal Neuralgias. A Twenty Year Experience. Acta Neurochir. (Wien), 1993. 58: pp. 168–170.Google Scholar
, , and , Anatomical Findings Observed During Microsurgical Approaches of the Cerebellopontine Angle for Vascular Decompression in Trigeminal Neuralgia (350 Cases). Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., 1994. 63: pp. 203–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Microvascular Relations and Anomalies at the Base of the Brain. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1948. 11: pp. 243–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunderland, S., Cranial Nerve Injury. Structural and Pathophysiological Considerations and a Classification of Nerve Injury, in The Cranial Nerves, and , Editors. 1981, Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg. pp. 16–26.Google Scholar
, Percutaneous Methods for the Treatment of Trigeminal Neuralgia and Other Faciocephalic Pain: Comparison with Microvascular Decompression. Semin. Neurol., 1988. 8: pp. 272–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Trigeminal Neuralgia and Decompression of the Trigeminal Root. Surg. Clin. North Am, 1956(36): pp. 1145–1157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Decompression of the Posterior Trigeminal Root in Trigeminal Neuralgia. A 30 Year Follow-up Review. J. Neurosurg., 1982(57): pp. 14–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Structure of the Nerve Root. 1. Nature of the Junction between Central and Peripheral Nervous System. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 1937. 37: pp. 555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Effect of Baclofen Enantiomorphs on the Spinal Trigeminal Nucleus and Steric Similarities of Carbamazepine. Pharmacology, 1983. 27: pp. 85–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Reaction on Motoneurons and Their Microenvironment to Axotomy. Exp Brain Res, 1986. 3(Suppl,13): pp. 3–8.Google Scholar
and , Hemimasticatory Spasm – a Peripheral Paroxysmal Cranial Neuropathy. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1983. 46: pp. 274–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Involuntary Vocalizations in Movement Disorders. Adv. Neurol., 1988. 49: pp. 343–363.Google ScholarPubMed
and , Blink Reflex Excitability Cycle in Hemifacial Spasm. Neurology, 1989. 39: pp. 1061–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Microvascular Decompression of the Cochlear Nerve in Patients with Severe Tinnitus. Preoperative Findings and Operative Outcome in 22 Patients. Neurol. Res., 1998. 20: pp. 242–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vial, C. and A. Vighetto, Hemifacial Spasm: Treatment with Botulinum Toxin (a Report of 50 Patients), in Hemifacial Spasm. A Multidisciplinary Approach, , , and , Editors. 1997, Springer: Wien. pp. 135–140.Google Scholar
, Studies of the Structure and Innervation of the Sensory Epithelium of the Cristae Ampularis in the Guinea Pig: A Light and Electron Microscopic Investigation. Acta Otolaryng. Suppl, 1956. 126.Google Scholar
White, J. C. and W. H. Sweet, Facial and Cephalic Neuralgias: Trigeminal Neuralgia, in Pain. 1955, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. pp. 433–493.
, , , , , and , The Use of Botulinum Toxin in the Treatment of Adductor Dysphonia. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych., 1993. 56: pp. 526–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , On the Myth of the Glial/Schwann Junction (Obersteiner-Redlich Zone): Origin of Vestibular Nerve Schwannomas. Otol. Neurotol., 2003. 24(1): pp. 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Tic Convulsif, the Combination of Geniculate Neuralgia and Hemifacial Spasm Relieved by Vascular Decompression. Neurology, 1984. 34: pp. 682–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Intraoperative Monitoring of Facial and Cochlear Nerves During Acoustic Neuroma Surgery. Otolaryngol. Clin. N. Am., 1992(25): pp. 413–448.Google ScholarPubMed
Yingling, C., Intraoperative Monitoring in Skull Base Surgery, in Neurotology, and , Editors. 1994, Mosby: St. Louis. pp. 967–1002.Google Scholar
, , and , Transtympanic Surgery for Hemifacial Spasm. Clin Otolaryngol, 1988(13): pp. 331–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed