Chapter 3: Comprehension Processes. This chapter describes higher-level processes and how both lower- and higher-level processes work together to form a mental text representation and a situation model of reading. Key features of higher-level processing include the following: text representation, situation model processing skills associated with working memory, background knowledge, and executive function resources. Key concepts include passive resonance processing, bridging inferences, the now-or-never bottleneck, lexical processing, incremental item-based learning, Kintsch’s Construction-Integration model of reading, a two-level account of reading comprehension, genre variations in text processing, working memory as executive function, other executive functions, attentional processing, inferencing, metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness, strategy use, goal setting, and comprehension monitoring. The chapter concludes with implications for instruction.

Chapter 6: Explaining Reading Comprehension: Models of Reading. This chapter reviews the major current model of reading comprehension that underlie much of current research on reading comprehension, both in L1 and L2 contexts. The chapter quickly notes more metaphorical explanations and then moves on to models and frameworks that are key for interpreting reading comprehension research: the Simple View of Reading, the Construction-Integration Model, the Landscape Model, the Verbal Efficiency Model, and the Reading Systems Framework Approach. The chapter closes with a specific discussion of L2 reading comprehension as interpreted by current models, and finally with implications for instruction.

Chapter 1: The Nature of Reading. This chapter provides foundations for the entire book in ways not typically discussed on other reading volumes. It begins with a view of literacy worldwide and then develops the concept of “purposes for reading” because reading skills vary in their activations depending on the reading purpose. A taxonomy of types of reading are discussed, but all types carry a core of reading ability more generally. The taxonomy of “purposes” is also validated by a number of specific research studies. The second major concept introduced is a generalized definition of reading ability, which is described in some depth. A third concept introduced is the “standard of coherence” required for reading purpose and task completion, a fourth concept introduced is a current and widely accepted theory of learning with reference to learning to read (ACT learning theory). The chapter closes with the first installment of a consistent features of the book: “Implications for Instruction.”

Chapter 4: Cognitive Issues in Reading. Underlying cognitive skills that support reading include the following: Implicit and explicit learning, frequency of experience with language, automaticity, statistical knowledge and statistical learning, associative learning and emergence (analogy), real-time processing skills (inhibition control, eager processing, predictive processing), speed of processing, the use of background knowledge, conceptualization and categorization, motivation and engagement, and contextual processing. Underlying cognitive skills are the keys to language learning and reading development. Specific concepts addressed include now-or-never processing, chunk-and-pass processing, connectionism, Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN), long-term memory and background knowledge, the several roles of context effects on reading, and semantic priming. The chapter concludes with implications for instruction.

Chapter 19: Reading Curriculum and Instruction. This chapter draws together the discussions of many instructional suggestions throughout the many earlier chapters. It first frames instructional recommendations in terms of 16 curricular guidelines to build a coherent yet flexible foundation for reading instruction. The chapter then considers four larger instructional frameworks that are implanted in various ways in both L1 and L2 settings: Discrete reading-skills building approaches, extensive reading approaches, commercial textbook series, and content and language development approaches (Content-Based Reading Instruction). The chapter reviews these four approaches and argues strongly for reading instruction that combines coherent content learning alongside reading skills development. The chapter describes in some detail one L2 content and reading approach (6-Ts). The chapter closes by reviewing the challenges and opportunities in using content-based reading instruction.

Chapter 13: Becoming a Strategic Reader. This chapter focuses on the development of the strategic reader, rather than strategies themselves. Strategic readers automatically and routinely apply combinations of effective and appropriate strategies, depending on reader goals, reading tasks, texts being read, and strategic processing abilities. Strategic readers are also aware of their comprehension success in relation to reading goals and apply sets of strategies appropriately to enhance comprehension with difficult texts. Becoming a strategic reader is challenging and requires considerable instruction and support. The chapter reviews research involving several instructional approaches to develop strategic processing, including Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), Questioning the Author, Transactional Strategies Instruction (TSI), Promoting Adolescent Comprehension of Text (PACT), and Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI). The chapter then links strategic reading to the challenges of advanced “reading to learn” goals, and concludes with implications for instruction.

Chapter 8: L1 and L2 Reading Relationships. This chapter explores the various factors influencing L2 reading development, describing various more general L1–L2 differences in reading development, the impact of L1 transfer on L2 reading relative to L2 developmental influences, the role of non-language-specific underlying cognate abilities, and issues of L1-L2 distance and dual language processing. A key conclusion is that L2 reading development emerges out of a combination of L1 transfer and L2 language skills as a dual-language processing system. The chapter first identifies fifteen ways in which L1 reading and L2 reading differ under linguistic differences, cognitive and educational differences, and socio-cultural and institutional differences. Specific relationships between L1 and L2 reading are described in line with four theoretical perspectives: The Interdependence Hypothesis, the Common Underlying Cognitive Processing framework, the Transfer Facilitation Model, and the Language Threshold Hypothesis. The chapter concludes with implications for instruction.

Chapter 15: Reading to Learn and Reading-Writing Relationships. This chapter examines research on the close relationship between reading comprehension and writing abilities. The focus of this research has been on how writing can support more advanced reading comprehension, and how engaging students in complex content-based texts and tasks will better prepare students to become both more proficient academic readers and more effective writers. This instructional trend to develop more proficient academic readers and writers is true for both L1 and L2 students, and in both secondary and post-secondary contexts. A third key concept in the reading-writing relationship is the important, but less explored role of content knowledge. The chapter then reviews two specific instructional formats for developing reading-writing relationships: summary writing and synthesis writing. The chapter concludes with implications for instruction.

Chapter 18: Extensive Reading. Extensive reading (ER) is understood here as an extensive amount of reading. It is not specifically tied only to enjoyable reading or easy reading, although both of these sources of reading are important. The fundamental idea is that a large amount of understandable input (i.e., within students’ linguistic competence) via reading will develop students’ language and knowledge resources through incidental implicit learning. The benefits of extensive reading emerge over time and is fundamental for developing advanced reading abilities. A large amount of reading (extensive reading) leads to better vocabulary knowledge, better background knowledge, and better reading comprehension. Research in both L1 and L2 of contexts are reviewed, and the role of extensive reading (L2) or amount of reading (L1) is the key foundation for reading development and advanced reading comprehension. The chapter concludes with implications for instruction.