ABC News. 2000. Spite Islands. Journeyman Pictures. www.journeyman.tv/film/700.Google Scholar

Adam, Jeroen. 2008. ‘Downward Social Mobility, Prestige and the Informal Economy in Post Conflict Ambon’. South East Asia Research 16(3): 461–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adam, Jeroen 2010. ‘Post‐Conflict Ambon: Forced Migration and the Ethno‐Territorial Effects of Customary Tenure’. Development and Change 41(3): 401–419.Google Scholar

Adetula, Victor A. O. 2005. ‘Ethnicity and the Dynamics of City Politics: The Case of Jos’. In Urban Africa: Changing Contours of Survival in the City, edited by Maliq, Simone Abdou and Abdelgani, Abouhani, 206–234. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar

Adger, W. Neil. 2000. ‘Social and Ecological Resilience: Are They Related?’ Progress in Human Geography 24(3): 347–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adger, W. Neil, Hughes, Terry, Folke, Carl, Carpenter, Stephen R., and Rockström, Johan. 2005. ‘Social-Ecological Resilience to Coastal Disasters’. Science 309 (5737): 1036–1039.Google Scholar

Aditjondro, George J. 2001. ‘Guns, Pamphlets and Handie-Talkies: How the Military Exploited Local Ethno-Religious Tensions in Maluku to Preserve Their Political and Economic Privileges’. In Violence in Indonesia, edited by Wessel, Ingrid and Wimhöfer, Georgia, 100–128. Hamburg: Abera.Google Scholar

Agbu, Osita. 2004 . Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria. Research Report No. 127. Nordic Africa Institute. www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95522/127.pdf.Google Scholar

Ake, Claude. 2000. The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa. Dakar: CODESRIA.Google Scholar

Albert, Isaac O. 1999. ‘New Directions in the Management of Community Conflicts in Nigeria: Insights from the Activities of AAPW’. In Community Conflicts in Nigeria: Management, Resolution and Transformation, edited by Onigu-Otite, Kenneth and Isaac, Olawale Albert. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.Google Scholar

Albin-Lackey, C. 2006. ‘They Do Not Own This Place: Government Discrimination against “Non-Indigenes” in Nigeria’. Human Rights Watch, 25 April. www.hrw.org/report/2006/04/25/they-do-not-own-place/government-discrimination-against-non-indigenes-nigeria.Google Scholar

Allansson, Marie, Melander, Erik, and Themnér, Lotta. 2017. ‘Organized Violence, 1989–2016’. Journal of Peace Research. 54(4): 574–587.Google Scholar

Almedom, Astier M. 2005. ‘Resilience, Hardiness, Sense of Coherence, and Posttraumatic Growth: All Paths Leading to ‘Light at the End of the Tunnel”?’ Journal of Loss and Trauma 10(3): 253–265.Google Scholar

Almedom, Astier M., Brensinger, Evelyn A., and Adam, Gordon M.. 2010. ‘Identifying the “Resilience Factor”: An Emerging Counter Narrative to the Traditional Discourse of “Vulnerability” in “Social Suffering”’. In Global Perspectives on War, Gender and Health: The Sociology and Anthropology of Suffering, edited by Bradby, Hannah and Lewando Hundt, Gillian, 127–146. London: Ashgate Publishing Company.Google Scholar

Anderson, David M. 2002. ‘Vigilantes, Violence and the Politics of Public Order in Kenya’. African Affairs 101(405): 531–555.Google Scholar

Anderson, Mary B. and Wallace, Marshall. 2013. Opting Out of War: Strategies to Prevent Violent Conflict. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Aradau, Claudia. 2014. ‘The Promise of Security: Resilience, Surprise and Epistemic Politics’. Resilience 2(2): 73–87.Google Scholar

Arjona, Ana. 2016a. Rebelocracy: Social Order in the Colombian Civil War. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Arjona, 2016b. ‘Institutions, Civilian Resistance, and Wartime Social Order: A Process‐Driven Natural Experiment in the Colombian Civil War’. Latin American Politics and Society 58(3): 99–122.Google Scholar

Azca, Muhammad N. 2006. ‘In between Military and Militia: The Dynamics of the Security Forces in the Communal Conflict in Ambon’. Asian Journal of Social Science, 34(3): 431–455.Google Scholar

Bagudu, Nankin and Dakas, C. J.. 2001. The Right to Be Different: Perspectives on Minority Rights and the Cultural Middle-Belt and Constitutionalism in Nigeria. Report of the Proceedings of the Peoples of the Cultural Middle-Belt of Nigeria Conference and the 1999 Constitution. Jos: League for Human Rights.Google Scholar

Baines, Erin and Paddon, Emily. 2012. ‘“This Is How We Survived”: Civilian Agency and Humanitarian Protection’. Security Dialogue 43(3): 231–247.Google Scholar

Barker, J. 2007. ‘Vigilantes and the State’. In Identifying with Freedom: Indonesia after Suharto, edited by Day, Tony, 87–94. New York, NY: Berghahn Books.Google Scholar

Barron, Patrick, Kaiser, Kai, and Pradhan, Menno. 2009. ‘Understanding Variations in Local Conflict: Evidence and Implications from Indonesia’. World Development 37(3): 698–713.Google Scholar

Barron, , Patrick, M. Najib Azca, , and Susdinarjanti, Tri. 2012. After the Communal War: Understanding and Addressing Post-Conflict Violence in Eastern Indonesia. Yogyakarta: CSPS Books.Google Scholar

Barron, Patrick, Jaffrey, Sana, and Varshney, Ashutosh. 2016. ‘When Large Conflicts Subside: The Ebbs and Flows of Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia’. Journal of East Asian Studies 16(2): 191–217.Google Scholar

Bartels, Dieter. 1977. Guarding the Invisible Mountain: Intervillage Alliances, Religious Syncretism and Ethnic Identity among Ambonese Christians and Muslims in the Moluccas. Ithaca, NY: Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University.Google Scholar

Bartels, 2001. ‘Your God Is No Longer Mine: Muslim–Christian Fratricide in the Central Moluccas (Indonesia) after a Half-Millennium of Tolerant Co-Existence and Ethnic Unity’. In A State of Emergency: Violence, Society and the State in Indonesia, edited by Pannell, Sandra, 128–153. Darwin: Northern Territory University Press.Google Scholar

Barter, Shane. 2014. Civilian Strategy in Civil War: Insights from Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Bates, Robert. 1983. ‘Modernization, Ethnic Competition, and the Rationality of Politics in Contemporary Africa’. In State versus Ethnic Claims: African Policy Dilemmas, edited by Rothchild, Donald and Olunsorola, Victor A.. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Bateson, Regina. 2012. ‘Crime Victimization and Political Participation’. American Political Science Review 106(3): 570–587.Google Scholar

BBC News. 2015. ‘Nigeria’s Boko Haram Crisis: Jos Blasts Kill Scores’, 1 July. www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33406537.Google Scholar

Bekoe, Dorina A. O. 2012. Voting in Fear: Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace.Google Scholar

Bellows, John and Miguel, Edward. 2009. ‘War and Local Collective Action in Sierra Leone’. Journal of Public Economics 93(11): 1144–1157.Google Scholar

von Benda-Beckmann, Franz and von Benda-Beckmann, Keebet. 2007. Social Security between Past and Future: Ambonese Networks of Care and Support. Münster: LIT Verlag.Google Scholar

von Benda-Beckmann, Franz and Taale, Tanja. 1996. ‘Land, Trees and Houses: Changing (un) Certainties in Property Relationships on Ambon’. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=NL2012064709.Google Scholar

von Benda-Beckmann, Keebet. 2004. ‘Law, Violence and Peace Making on the Islands of Ambon’. In Healing the Wounds: Essays on the Reconstruction of Societies after War, edited by Foblets, Marie-Claire and von Trotha, Truth, 221–239. Oxford: Hart.Google Scholar

Bennett, Andrew and George, Alexander L.. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Berenschot, Ward. 2011a. ‘The Spatial Distribution of Riots: Patronage and the Instigation of Communal Violence in Gujarat, India’. World Development, 39(2): 221–230.Google Scholar

Berenschot, 2011b. Riot Politics: India’s Hindu–Muslim Violence and the Everyday Mediation of the State. London: Hurst & Company.Google Scholar

Berkes, Fikret. 2001. ‘Back to the Future: Ecosystem Dynamics and Local Knowledge’. In Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems, edited by Gunderson, Lance H. and Holling, C. S., 121–146. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar

Berkes, Fikret, Folke, Carl, and Colding, Johan. 2000. Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Berkes, Fikret, Colding, Johan, and Folke, Carl. 2003. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Bertrand, Jacques. 2004. Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Bertrand, 2008. ‘Ethnic Conflicts in Indonesia: National Models, Critical Junctures, and the Timing of Violence’. Journal of East Asian Studies 8(3): 425–449.Google Scholar

Best, Shedrack G. 2007. Conflict and Peacebuilding in Plateau State, Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.Google Scholar

Best, 2008. The Causes and Effects of Conflict in Southern Zone of Plateau State, Nigeria. Edited by Best, Shedrack G.. Jos: University of Jos.Google Scholar

Best, Shedrack and Dimieari, Von Kemedi. 2005. ‘Armed Groups and Conflict in Rivers and Plateau States, Nigeria’. In Armed and Aimless, Armed Groups, Guns and Human Security in the ECOWAS Region, edited by Florquin, Nicolas and Berman, Eric, 13–45. Geneva: Small Arms Survey.Google Scholar

Bewarang, Rev. Dr Soka, . 2010. ‘COCIN Vice President to the COCIN Church Leaders, Sermon on the Jos Crisis at the COCIN Conference Hall on Monday 8th February 2010’. www.google.ch/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=the%20address%20of%20rev.%20dr.%20soja%20bewarang%2C%20cocin%20vice%20president%20to%20the%20cocin%20church%20leaders&source=web&cd=8&ved=0CF8QFjAH&url=http%3A%2F%2F www.cfaithministries.org%2Fuploads%2Ffiles%2FCOCIN_Vice_President_Address.doc%26ei=5wJrT_OjKomI4gTh6omRBg%26usg=AFQjCNF7sgV6O8qr7F1q7WExFWZ6sQtgQA.Google Scholar

Bitrus Jat, Rauta and Dung, Pam Sha. 2005. The Performance of Local Government Councils in the North Central Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria. Stirling: Horden Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar

Blattman, Christopher. 2009. ‘From Violence to Voting: War and Political Participation in Uganda’. American Political Science Review 103(2): 231–247.Google Scholar

Blench, Roger. 2003a. ‘The Transformation of Conflict between Pastoralists and Cultivators in Nigeria’. Unpublished working paper. www.rogerblench.info/Conflict/Herder-farmer%20conflict%20in%20Nigeria.pdf.Google Scholar

Blench, Roger 2003b. ‘Access Rights and Conflict over Common Pool Resources on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria’. Report to World Bank/UNDP/DFID-JEWEL (Jigawa Enhancement of Wetlands Livelihoods Project). http://rb.rowbory.co.uk/Conflict/Jos%20section%20only.pdf.Google Scholar

Blench, Roger 2004. ‘Natural Resource Conflicts in North-Central Nigeria’. Unpublished working paper. http://rogerblench.info/Development/Nigeria/Pastoralism/Nigeria%20Conflict%20Book.pdf.Google Scholar

Blench, Roger, Longtau, Selbut, Hassan, Umar, and Walsh, Martin. 2006. ‘The Role of Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and Mediation in Nigeria’. Prepared for the UK Department for International Development. www.rogerblench.info/Development/Nigeria/Conflict%20resolution/Final%20Report%20TRs%20September%2006.pdf.Google Scholar

Boehm, Cornelius J. 2005. Brief Chronicle of the Unrest in the Moluccas, 1999–2005. Ambon: Crisis Centre, Diocese of Amboina.Google Scholar

Boehm, Cornelius J. 2006. Supplement to Brief Chronicle of the Unrest in the Moluccas 1999–2005: Reporting of the Aftermath Events during the Period May 2005–May 2006. Ambon: Crisis Centre, Diocese of Amboina.Google Scholar

Bonkat, Lohna. 2014. ‘Survival Strategies of Market Women and Violent Conflicts in Jos, Nigeria’. Journal of Asia Pacific Studies 3(3): 281–299.Google Scholar

Boone, Catherine. 2011. ‘Politically Allocated Land Rights and the Geography of Electoral Violence: The Case of Kenya in the 1990s’. Comparative Political Studies 44(10): 1311–1342.Google Scholar

Bourbeau, Philippe. 2015. ‘Resilience and International Politics: Premises, Debates, Agenda’. International Studies Review 17(3): 374–395.Google Scholar

Braithwaite, John. 2010. Anomie and Violence: Non-Truth and Reconciliation in Indonesian Peacebuilding. Canberra: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar

Brass, Paul. 1997. Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brass, Paul 2003. The Production of Hindu–Muslim Violence in Contemporary India. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar

Brass, Paul 2006. Forms of Collective Violence: Riots, Pogroms, & Genocide in Modern India. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University. Three Essays Collective.Google Scholar

Bratton, Michael. 2008. ‘Vote Buying and Violence in Nigerian Election Campaigns’. Electoral Studies 27(4): 621–632.Google Scholar

Bräuchler, Birgit. 2003. ‘Cyberidentities at War: Religion, Identity, and the Internet in the Moluccan Conflict’. Indonesia 75: 123–151.Google Scholar

Bräuchler, Birgit 2005. Cyberidentities at War: der Molukkenkonflikt im Internet. Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag.Google Scholar

Bräuchler, Birgit 2009. Reconciling Indonesia: Grassroots Agency for Peace. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Bräuchler, Birgit 2015. The Cultural Dimension of Peace: Decentralization and Reconciliation in Indonesia. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Brewer, Marilynn B. 1999. ‘The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate?’ Journal of Social Issues 55(3): 429–444.Google Scholar

Brosché, Johan. 2014. Masters of War: The Role of Elites in Sudan’s Communal Conflicts. Uppsala University: Department of Peace & Conflict Research. No. 102.Google Scholar

Brosché, Johan and Elfversson, Emma. 2012. ‘Communal Conflict, Civil War, and the State: Complexities, Connections, and the Case of Sudan’. African Journal on Conflict Resolution 12(1): 9–32.Google Scholar

Brown, David and Wilson, Ian. 2007. ‘Ethnicized Violence in Indonesia: The Betawi Brotherhood Forum in Jakarta’. Working Paper No. 145. Perth: Murdoch University Asia Research Center.Google Scholar

Brown, Rupert and Hewstone, Miles. 2005. ‘An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Contact’. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 37: 255–343.Google Scholar

Browning, Christopher R. 1993. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.Google Scholar

Brubaker, Roger. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brubaker, Roger and Laitin, David. 1998. ‘Ethnic and Nationalist Violence’. Annual Review of Sociology 24: 423–452.Google Scholar

van Bruinessen, Martin. 1996. ‘Islamic State or State Islam? Fifty Years of State–Islam Relations in Indonesia’. In Indonesien am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts, edited by Wessel, Ingrid, 19–34. Hamburg: Abera.Google Scholar

van Bruinessen, Martin 2002. ‘Genealogies of Islamic Radicalism in Post-Suharto Indonesia’. South East Asia Research 10(2): 117–154.Google Scholar

Bubandt, Nils. 2000. ‘Malukan Apocalypse: Themes in the Dynamics of Violence in Eastern Indonesia’. In Violence in Indonesia, edited by Wessel, Ingrid and Wimhöfer, Georgia, 228–253. Hamburg: Abera.Google Scholar

Bubandt, Nils 2004. ‘Violence and Millenarian Modernity in Eastern Indonesia’. In Cargo, Cult & Culture Critique, edited by Jebens, Holger, 92–116. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar

Bubandt, Nils 2008. ‘Rumours, Pamphlets, and the Politics of Paranoia in Indonesia’. The Journal of Asian Studies 67(3): 789–817.Google Scholar

Campbell, John. 2011. Nigeria: Dancing on the Brink. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

Carpenter, Steve, Walker, Brian, Anderies, J. Marty, and Abel, Nick. 2001. ‘From Metaphor to Measurement: Resilience of What to What?’ Ecosystems 4: 765–781.Google Scholar

Caruth, Cathy. 1995. Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore, MD, and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Cavelty, Myriam Dunn, Kaufmann, Mareile, and Kristensen, Kristian Søby. 2015. ‘Resilience and (In)Security: Practices, Subjects, Temporalities’. Security Dialogue 46(1): 3–14.Google Scholar

Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. 2011. ‘Conflict Management in Indonesia: An Analysis of the Conflicts in Maluku, Papua and Poso’. Report. www.hdcentre.org/uploads/tx_news/5ConflictManagementinIndonesia.pdf.Google Scholar

Chandler, David. 2014. Resilience: The Governance of Complexity. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Chandra, Sudhir. 1993. ‘Of Communal Consciousness and Communal Violence: Impressions from Post-Riot Surat’. Economic and Political Weekly 28(36): 1883–1887.Google Scholar

Chenoweth, Erica and Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher. 2013. ‘Understanding Nonviolent Resistance: An Introduction’. Journal of Peace Research 50(3): 271–276.Google Scholar

Chenoweth, Erica and Stephan, Maria J.. 2011. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Chirot, Daniel and Clark, McCauley. 2010. Why Not Kill Them All? The Logic and Prevention of Mass Political Murder. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Christie, Daniel J. 2006. ‘What Is Peace Psychology the Psychology Of?’ Journal of Social Issues 62(1): 1–17.Google Scholar

Christie, Daniel J., Wagner, Richard V., and Winter, Deborah D. N.. 2001. Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21st Century. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar

Christie, Daniel J., Tint, Barbara S., Wagner, Richard V., and Winter, Deborah DuNann. 2008. ‘Peace Psychology for a Peaceful World’.American Psychologist 63(6): 540–552.Google Scholar

Citizens’ Monitoring Group. 2010. ‘Plateau under Attack! Jos Crisis 2010: Eyewitness and Survivor Accounts’. February. www.scribd.com/doc/28479137/Plateau-Under-Attack-Jos-Crisis-2010.Google Scholar

Claassen, Christopher. 2014. ‘Who Participates in Communal Violence? Survey Evidence from South Africa’. Research & Politics April–June: 1–8.Google Scholar

Clauss-Ehlers, Caroline S. and Levi, Liliana Lopez. 2002. ‘Violence and Community, Terms in Conflict: An Ecological Approach to Resilience’. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 11(4): 265–278.Google Scholar

Colobijn, Freek. 2002. ‘Explaining the Violent Solution in Indonesia’. Brown Journal of World Affairs 9(1): 49–56.Google Scholar

Colobijn, Freek and Lindblad, J. Thomas. 2002. Roots of Violence in Indonesia: Contemporary Violence in Historical Perspective. Leiden: KIVTL Press.Google Scholar

Conflict Prevention and Management Centre of Jos. 1993. ‘The Settler Question in Nigeria: The Case of the Jos Plateau’. Communities Seminar Series (CSS 1). Jos: Africa Leadership Forum.Google Scholar

Cooley, Frank L. 1962. Ambonese Adat: A General Description. New Haven, CT: Yale University, Southeast Asia Studies.Google Scholar

Coppel, Charles A. 2006. Violent Conflicts in Indonesia: Analysis, Representation, Resolution. London: Routledge Curzon.Google Scholar

Corbett, Justin. 2011. ‘Learning from the Nuba: Civilian Resilience and Self-Protection during Conflict’. Local to Global Protection, October. www.cmi.no/file/1908-Learning-from-the-Nuba-Civilian-resilience-and-self-protection-during-con64258ict.pdf.Google Scholar

Coser, Lewis A. 1956. The Functions of Social Conflict. Oxon: Routledge.Google Scholar

Coser, Lewis A. 1966. ‘Some Social Functions of Violence’. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 364(1): 8–18.Google Scholar

Crouch, Harold. A. 2010. Political reform in Indonesia after Soeharto. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar

Trust, Daily. 2010. ‘Secret Killings Persist in Jos’. 23 March. www.nigeria70.com/nigerian_news_paper/secret_killings_persist_in_jos/197149.Google Scholar

Danfulani, Umar H. D. and Fwatshak, Sati U.. 2002. ‘Briefing: The September 2001 Events in Jos, Nigeria’. African Affairs 101(403): 243–255.Google Scholar

Davidson, Jamie and Henley, David, eds. 2007. The Revival of Tradition in Indonesian Politics: The Deployment of Adat from Colonialism to Indigenism. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Davis, Michael 2002. ‘Laskar Jihad and the Political Position of Conservative Islam in Indonesia’. Contemporary Southeast Asia 24(1): 12–33.Google Scholar

Davoudi, Simin. 2012. ‘Resilience: A Bridging Concept or a Dead End?’ Planning Theory & Practice 13(2): 299–333.Google Scholar

Denham, Aaron R. 2008. ‘Rethinking Historical Trauma: Narratives of Resilience’. Transcultural Psychiatry 45(3): 391–414.Google Scholar

Dixon, Lawrence G. and Mokuwa, Samuel. 2004. Sierra Leone: Making Sense of One Community’s Experience during the War. Steps toward Conflict Prevention Project, CDA Collaborative Learning Projects.Google Scholar

Doughty, Kristin and Ntambara, David Moussa. 2003. ‘Resistance and Protection: Muslim Community Actions during the Rwandan Genocide’. CDA Collaborative www.conference.unitar.org/ny/sites/unitar.org.ny/files/stepsCase02Rwanda.pdf.Google Scholar

Dudley, Billy J. 1968. Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria. London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd.Google Scholar

Dudouet, Véronique. 2008. ‘Nonviolent Resistance and Conflict Transformation in Power Asymmetries’. The Berghof Handbook. http://edoc.vifapol.de/opus/volltexte/2011/2586/.Google Scholar

Dudouet, Véronique, ed. 2015. Civil Resistance and Conflict Transformation: Transitions from Armed to Nonviolent Struggle. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar

Duffield, Caroline. 2010. ‘Why I Burnt My Nigerian Friend’s House Down’. BBC News, 26 April. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8640796.stm.Google Scholar

Duffield, Mark. 2012. ‘Challenging Environments: Danger, Resilience and the Aid Industry’. Security Dialogue 43(5): 474–492.Google Scholar

Duncan, Christopher R. 2005. ‘The Other Maluku: Chronologies of Conflict in North Maluku’. Indonesia 80: 53–80.Google Scholar

Duncan, Christopher R. 2013. Violence and Vengeance: Religious Conflict and Its Aftermaths in Eastern Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Dung, Pam Sha. 2005. The Politicisation of Settler-Native Identities and Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Jos, Central Nigeria. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar

Dung-Gwom, John Y. and Rikko, Laraba S.. 2009. ‘Urban Violence and Emerging Land and Housing Markets in Jos, Nigeria’. ISA Housing Conference. www.sma.ie/wp-content/uploads/images/stories/media_129777_en.pdf.Google Scholar

Dunn, Kevin C. 2009. ‘“Sons of the Soil” and Contemporary State Making: Autochthony, Uncertainty and Political Violence in Africa’. Third World Quarterly 30(1): 113–127.Google Scholar

Earl, Jennifer, Marten, Andrew, McCarthy, John D., and Soule, Sarah A.. 2004. ‘The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action’. Annual Review of Sociology 30: 65–80.Google Scholar

Egeland, Byron, Carlson, Elizabeth, and Sroufe, E. Alan. 1993. ‘Resilience as Process’. Development and Psychopathology, 5(04): 517–528.Google Scholar

Eggerman, Mark and Panter-Brick, Catherine. 2010. ‘Suffering, Hope, and Entrapment: Resilience and Cultural Values in Afghanistan’. Social Science & Medicine 71(1): 71–83.Google Scholar

Egwu, Samuel G. 2010. ‘Ethnicity and Citizenship in Urban Nigeria: The Jos Case, 1960–2000’. Doctoral Thesis. Jos: University of Jos.Google Scholar

Elfversson, Emma. 2015. ‘Providing Security or Protecting Interests? Government Interventions in Violent Communal Conflicts in Africa’. Journal of Peace Research 52(6): 791–805.Google Scholar

Erikson, Kai T. 1976. ‘Loss of Communality at Buffalo Creek’. American Journal of Psychiatry 133(3): 302–305.Google Scholar

Erikson, Kai T. 1994. A New Species of Trouble: Explorations in Disaster, Trauma, and Community. New York, NY: Norton & Company.Google Scholar

Erikson, Kai T. 1995. ‘Notes on Trauma and Community’. In Trauma: Explorations in Memory, edited by Caruth, Cathy, 183–199. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Ernston, Henrik, Sörlin, Sverker, and Elmqvist, Thomas. 2008. ‘Social Movements and Ecosystem Services: The Role of Social Network Structure in Protecting and Managing Urban Green Areas in Stockholm’. Ecology and Society 13: 29–39.Google Scholar

Falola, Toyin. 1998. Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar

Farman, Tarah. 2005. ‘Mungoi Community Chidenguele, Mozambique’. CDA Collaborative. http://cdacollaborative.org/publication/mungoi-community-chidenguele-mozambique/.Google Scholar

Fealy, Greg. 2001. ‘Inside the Laskar Jihad’. Inside Indonesia 65: 29.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. 1999. ‘Why Ethnic Politics and “Pork” Tend to Go Together’. Conference paper. University of Chicago. https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/39725/1ojs4cbof49zq9gw4n05.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A%26Expires=1511132122%26Signature=OKsuZ0F385ZzH4t1tR5ozo7Odr0%3D%26response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DWhy_Ethnic_Politics_and_Pork_Tend_to_Go.pdf.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D.. 1996. ‘Explaining Interethnic Cooperation’. American Political Science Review 90(4): 715–735.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D. 2000. ‘Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity’. International Organization 54(4): 845–877.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D. 2003. ‘Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War’. American Political Science Review 97(1): 75–90.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D. 2011. ‘Sons of the Soil, Migrants, and Civil War’. World Development 39(2): 199–211.Google Scholar

Fein, Helen. 1979. Accounting for Genocide: National Responses and Jewish Victimization during the Holocaust. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar

Folke, Carl. 2006. ‘Resilience: The Emergence of a Perspective for Social-Ecological Systems Analyses’. Global Environmental Change 16(3): 253–267.Google Scholar

Folke, Carl, Colding, Johan, and Berkes, Fikret. 2003. ‘Synthesis: Building Resilience and Adaptive Capacity in Social-Ecological Systems’. In Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change, edited by Berkes, Fikret, Colding, Johan, and Folke, Carl, 352–387. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Folke, Carl, Hahn, Thomas, Olsson, Per, and Norberg, Jon. 2005. ‘Adaptive Governance of Social-Ecological Systems’. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 441–473.Google Scholar

Fujii, Lee A. 2009. Killing Neighbors: Webs of Violence in Rwanda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Fujii, Lee A. 2010. ‘Shades of Truth and Lies: Interpreting Testimonies of War and Violence’. Journal of Peace Research 47(2): 231–241.Google Scholar

Fujii, Lee A. 2012. ‘Genocide and the Psychology of Perpetrators, Bystanders, and Victims’. Perspectives on Politics 10(2): 415–417.Google Scholar

Fujii, Lee A. 2015. ‘Five Stories of Accidental Ethnography: Turning Unplanned Moments in the Field into Data’. Qualitative Research 15(4): 525–539.Google Scholar

Fwatshak, Sari Umaru. 2006. ‘A Comparative Analysis of the 19th and 21st Century Religious Conflicts on the Jos Plateau, Central Nigeria’. Swedish Missiological Themes 94(3): 259–280.Google Scholar

Fwatshak, Sari Umaru. 2011. African Entrepreneurship in Jos, Central Nigeria, 1902–1985. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.Google Scholar

Galtung, Johan 1965. ‘On the Meaning of Nonviolence’. Journal of Peace Research 2(3): 228–256.Google Scholar

Garcia, Ed. 1997. ‘Filipino Zones of Peace’. Peace Review 9(2): 221–224.Google Scholar

Gerring, John. 2007. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ghassem-Fachandi, Parvis. 2012. Pogrom in Gujarat: Hindu Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Violence in India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Golwa, Joseph H. P., and Ojiji, Ochinya O., eds. 2008. Dialogue on Citizenship in Nigeria. Abuja: Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution.Google Scholar

Gore, Charles and Pratten, David. 2003. ‘The Politics of Plunder: The Rhetoric of Order and Disorder in Southern Nigeria’. African Affairs 102(407): 211–240.Google Scholar

Gorur, Aditi. 2013. ‘Community Self-Protection Strategies: How Peacekeepers Can Help or Harm’. Civilians in Conflict, Issue Brief No. 1. www.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/Stimson_Community_Self-Protection_Issue_Brief_Aug_2013_1.pdf.Google Scholar

Goss, Jan. 2000. ‘Understanding the Maluku Wars: An Overview of the Sources of Communal Conflict and Prospects for Peace’. Cakalele: Maluku Research Journal 7, 11–12.Google Scholar

Gould, Roger. 1999. ‘Collective Violence and Group Solidarity: Evidence from a Feuding Society’. American Sociological Review 64: 356–380.Google Scholar

Gray, Vanessa Joan. 2012. ‘Nonviolence and Sustainable Resource Use with External Support: A Survival Strategy in Rural Colombia’. Latin American Perspectives 39(1): 43–114.Google Scholar

Gross, Jan T. 2001. Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Grossmann, Dave. 1996. On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar

The Guardian Nigeria. 2001. ‘Jos: Its Underbelly and the Carnage’. 14 September. http://allafrica.com/stories/200109140109.html.Google Scholar

Guichaoua, Yvan. 2007. Who Joins Ethnic Militias? A Survey of the Oodua People’s Congress in Southwestern Nigeria. Oxford: University of Oxford, Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity.Google Scholar

Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco and Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2017. ‘What Should We Mean by “Pattern of Political Violence”? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique’. Perspectives on Politics 15(1): 20–41.Google Scholar

Hadiz, Vedi. 2003. ‘Reorganizing Political Power in Indonesia: A Reconsideration of So-Called Democratic Transitions’. The Pacific Review 16(4): 591–611.Google Scholar

Hall, Peter A. and Lamont, Michèle, eds. 2013. Social Resilience in the Neoliberal Era. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hallward, Maia, Masullo, Juan, and Mouly, Cécile. 2017. ‘Civil Resistance in Armed Conflict: Leveraging Nonviolent Action to Navigate War, Oppose Violence and Confront Oppression’. Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 12(3): 1–9.Google Scholar

Hancock, Landon E. 2017. ‘Agency %26 Peacebuilding: The Promise of Local Zones of Peace’. Peacebuilding 5(3): 255–269.Google Scholar

Landon E., Hancock and Mitchell, Christopher R., eds. 2007. Zones of Peace. Bloomfield, IL: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar

Hancock, Landon E. and Iyer, P.. 2007. ‘The Nature, Structure and Variety of Peace Zones’. In Zones of Peace, edited by Hancock, Landon and Mitchel, Christopher, 1–28. Bloomfield, IL: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar

Harragin, Simon. 2011. ‘South Sudan: Waiting for Peace to Come’. Local to Global Protection, pp. 1–103. https://reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan-republic/south-sudan-waiting-peace-come-study-bor-twic-east-duk-counties-jonglei.Google Scholar

Hartman, Alexandra and Morse, Ben. 2018. ‘Wartime Violence, Empathy, and Inter-Group Altruism: Theory and Evidence from the Ivorian Refugee Crisis in Liberia’. British Journal of Political Science, 1–25. doi:10.1017/S0007123417000655.Google Scholar

Hasan, Noordhaidi. 2002. ‘Faith and Politics: The Rise of the Laskar Jihad in the Era of Transition in Indonesia’. Indonesia 73: 145–169.Google Scholar

Hasan, Noordhaidi 2006. Laskar Jihad: Islam, Militancy, and the Quest for Identity in Post-New Order Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program Publication.Google Scholar

Hefner, Robert W. 2000a. Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Hefner, Robert W. 2000b. ‘Disintegration of Democratization? Muslim–Christian Violence and the Future of Indonesia’. In Political Violence: Indonesia and India in Comparative Perspective, edited by Törnquist, Olle, 39–49. Oslo: Centre for Development and the Environment.Google Scholar

Hefner, Robert W. 2002. ‘Global Violence and Indonesian Muslim Politics’. American Anthropologist 104(3): 754–765.Google Scholar

Hewstone, Miles, Cairns, Ed, Voci, Alberto, Hamberger, Juergen, and Niens, Ulrieke. 2006. ‘Intergroup Contact, Forgiveness, and Experience of “The Troubles” in Northern Ireland’. Journal of Social Issues 62(1): 99–120.Google Scholar

Hewstone, Miles, Rubin, Mark, and Willis, Hazel. 2002. ‘Intergroup Bias’. Annual Review of Psychology 53(1): 575–604.Google Scholar

Hiariej, Eddy O. S., ed. 2007. Format Ulang Birokrasi Kota Ambon. Makassar: Penerbit Ininnawa.Google Scholar

Higazi, Adam. 2008. ‘Social Mobilization and Collective Violence: Vigilantes and Militias in the Lowlands of Plateau State, Central Nigeria’. Africa 78(1): 107–135.Google Scholar

Higazi, Adam 2011. ‘The Jos Crisis: A Recurrent Nigerian Tragedy’. Working paper. Abuja: Friedrich Ebert Foundation.Google Scholar

Higazi, Adam 2013. ‘Rural Insecurity on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria: Livelihoods, Land, and Religious Reform among the Berom, Fulani, and Hausa’. Nigeria Research Network (NRN) Working paper. University of Oxford.Google Scholar

Higazi, Adam 2016. ‘Farmer–Pastoralist Conflicts on the Jos Plateau, Central Nigeria: Security Responses of Local Vigilantes and the Nigerian State’. Conflict, Security & Development 16(4): 365–385.Google Scholar

Höglund, Kristine. 2009. ‘Electoral Violence in Conflict-Ridden Societies: Concepts, Causes, and Consequences’. Terrorism and Political Violence 21(3): 412–427.Google Scholar

Holland, John H. 1995. Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity. Cambridge: Helix Books.Google Scholar

Holling, Crawford S. 1973. ‘Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems’. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4(1): 1–23.Google Scholar

Holling, Crawford S. 1986. ‘The Resilience of Terrestrial Ecosystems: Local Surprise and Global Change’. In Sustainable Development of the Biosphere, edited by Clark, W. C. and Munn, R. E., 292–231. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Horowitz, Donald. L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Horowitz, Donald. L. 2001. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Horowitz, Donald. L. 2013. Constitutional Change and Democracy in Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hudson, Heidi. 2014. ‘Gendercidal Violence and the Technologies of Othering in Libya and Rwanda’. Africa Insight 44(1): 103–120.Google Scholar

Hull, Stephen. 2009. ‘The “Everyday Politics” of IDP Protection in Karen State’. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs 28(2): 7–21.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 1999. ‘Indonesia: The Violence in Ambon’. 16 March. www.hrw.org/news/1999/03/16/indonesia-violence-ambon.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch 2004. ‘Nigeria: Prevent Further Bloodshed in Plateau State. Government Should Investigate Yelwa Massacre, Provide Security’. 11 May. www.hrw.org/news/2004/05/11/nigeria-prevent-further-bloodshed-plateau-state.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch 2009. Arbitrary Killings by Security Forces. Submission to the Investigative Bodies on the November 28–29, 2008 Violence in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/nigeria0709web.pdf.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch 2011. ‘Nigeria: New Wave of Violence Leaves 200 Dead’. 27 January. www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/01/27/nigeria-new-wave-violence-leaves-200-dead.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch 2013. ‘“Leave Everything to God”: Accountability for Inter-Communal Violence in Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria’. Human Rights Watch Report, 12 December. www.hrw.org/report/2013/12/12/leave-everything-god/accountability-inter-communal-violence-plateau-and-kaduna.Google Scholar

Ibrahim, Jibrin. 2000. ‘The Transformation of Ethno-Regional Identities in Nigeria’. In Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, edited by Jega, Attahiru, 41–61. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar

Idowu, William O. O. 1999. ‘Citizenship Status, Statehood Problems and Political Conflict: The Case of Nigeria’. Nordic Journal of African Studies 8(2): 73–88.Google Scholar

Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPR). 2003. Strategic Conflict Assessment of Nigeria: Consolidated and Zonal Reports. Abuja: Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution and the Presidency.Google Scholar

Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPR) 2008. Strategic Conflict Assessment of Nigeria: Consolidated and Zonal Reports. Abuja: Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution.Google Scholar

Ikelegbe, Austine. 2005. ‘State, Ethnic Militias, and Conflict in Nigeria’. Canadian Journal of African Studies 39(3): 490–516.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. 2000. ‘Indonesia: Overcoming Murder and Chaos in Maluku’. Asia Report No. 10, 19 December. www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/indonesia-overcoming-murder-and-chaos-maluku.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. 2002. ‘The Search for Peace in Maluku’. Asia Report No 31, 8 February. www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/indonesia-search-peace-maluku.Google Scholar

International Crisis Group. 2011. ‘Indonesia: Trouble Again in Ambon’. Asia Briefing No 128, 4 October. www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/indonesia-trouble-again-ambon.Google Scholar

IRIN News. 2010. ‘Politics of Identity – the Jos Conflict’. 26 May. www.irinnews.org/report/89243/analysis-politics-identity-jos-conflict.Google Scholar

Janzen, John M. 2000. ‘Historical Consciousness and a “Prise de Conscience” in Genocidal Rwanda’. Journal of African Cultural Studies 13(1): 153–168.Google Scholar

Jentzsch, Corinna, Kalyvas, Stathis N., and Schubiger, Livia Isabella. 2015. ‘Militias in Civil Wars’. Journal of Conflict Resolution 59(5): 755–769.Google Scholar

Jos North Muslim Ummah. 2009. ‘Report on the 2008 Jos Crisis’. Unpublished document. Manuscript obtained in Jos, Nigeria.Google Scholar

Joseph, Jonathan. 2013. ‘Resilience as Embedded Neoliberalism: A Governmentality Approach’. Resilience 1(1): 38–52.Google Scholar

Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2009. ‘Conflict and the Explanation of Action’. In Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology, edited by Hedstrom, Peter, 592–618.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Kaplan, Oliver. 2013. ‘Protecting Civilians in Civil War: The Institution of the ATCC in Colombia’. Journal of Peace Research 50(3): 351–367.Google Scholar

Kaplan, Oliver 2017. Resisting War: How Civilians Protect Themselves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Kastor, R. 2000. Fakta, Data, dan Analisa Konspirasi Politik RMS dan Kristen menghancurkan ummat Islam di Ambon-Maluku: Mengungkap konflik berdarah antar ummat beragama dan suara hati warga Muslim yang teraniaya. Yogyakarta: Wihdah Press.Google Scholar

Khamidov, Alisher, Megoran, Nick, and Heathershaw, John. 2017. ‘Bottom-Up Peacekeeping in Southern Kyrgyzstan: How Local Actors Managed to Prevent the Spread of Violence from Osh/Jalal-Abad to Aravan, June 2010’. Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity 45(6): 1118–1134.Google Scholar

Kenny, Joseph. 1996. ‘Sharia and Christianity in Nigeria: Islam and a “Secular” State’. Journal of Religion in Africa 26(4): 338–364.Google Scholar

Killian, Beverly. 2004. ‘Risk and Resilience’. In A Generation at Risk? HIV/Aids, Vulnerable Children and Security in Southern Africa, edited by Pharoah, Robyn, 33–63. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies.Google Scholar

King, Charles. 2004. ‘The Micropolitics of Social Violence: Review Article’.World Politics 56: 431–455.Google Scholar

Klaus, Kathleen and Mitchell, Matthew I.. 2015. ‘Land Grievances and the Mobilization of Electoral Violence: Evidence from Côte d’Ivoire and Kenya’. Journal of Peace Research 52(5): 622–635.Google Scholar

van Klinken, Gerry. 2001. ‘The Maluku Wars: Bringing Society Back In’. Indonesia 71: 1–26.Google Scholar

van Klinken, Gerry 2007. Communal Violence and Democratization in Indonesia: Small Town Wars. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Krause, Jana. 2011a. ‘Explaining Nigeria’s Christmas Killings’. OpenDemocracy, 3 January. www.opendemocracy.net/jana-krause/explaining-nigerias-christmas-killings.Google Scholar

Krause, Jana 2011b. ‘A Deadly Cycle: Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria’. Report, Geneva Declaration. www.files.ethz.ch/isn/142958/GD-WP-Jos-deadly-cycle.pdf.Google Scholar

Krause, Jana 2011c. ‘Jos: Guarding Peace in the Midst of Ethno-Religious Violence’. Comunidad Segura Magazine, October. www.genevadeclaration.org/fileadmin/docs/regional_seminars/Good_Pratices_magazine_8_-_web.pdf.Google Scholar

Krause, Jana 2017. ‘Non-Violence and Civilian Agency in Communal War: Evidence from Jos, Nigeria’. African Affairs 116(463): 261–283.Google Scholar

Krause, Jana 2018. ‘Gender Dimensions of (Non-)Violence in Communal Conflict: The Case of Jos, Nigeria’. Working paper. University of Amsterdam.Google Scholar

Kreidie, Lina Haddad and Monroe, Kristen Renwick. 2002. ‘Psychological Boundaries and Ethnic Conflict: How Identity Constrained Choice and Worked to Turn Ordinary People into Perpetrators of Ethnic Violence during the Lebanese Civil War’. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 16(1): 5–36.Google Scholar

Krug, Etienne G., Dahlberg, Linda L., Mercy, James A., Zwi, Anthony B., and Lozano, Rafael. 2002. ‘World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organisation’. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42495/1/9241545615_eng.pdf.Google Scholar

Last, Murray. 1967. The Sokoto Caliphate. London: Longmans.Google Scholar

Last, Murray 2007. ‘Muslims and Christians in Nigeria: An Economy of Political Panic’. Round Table 96(92): 605–616.Google Scholar

Lederach, John Paul, ed. 1997. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace.Google Scholar

Lederach, John Paul, 2005. The Moral Imagination: The Art and Soul of Building Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Leonard, Madeleine. 2004. ‘Bonding and Bridging Social Capital: Reflections from Belfast’. Sociology 38(5): 927–944.Google Scholar

Lewis, Peter. 1996. ‘From Prebendalism to Predation: The Political Economy of decline in Nigeria’. The Journal of Modern African Studies 34(01): 79–103.Google Scholar

Lewis, Peter 1999. ‘Nigeria: An End to the Permanent Transition?’ Journal of Democracy 10(1): 141–156.Google Scholar

Liddle, William. 2002. ‘Indonesia’s Democratic Transition: Playing by the Rules’. In The Architecture of Democracy: Constitutional Design, Conflict Management and Democracy, edited by Reynolds, Andrew, 373–399. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Lindsey, Tim. 2001. ‘The Criminal State: Premanisme and the new Indonesia’. Indonesia Today. Challenges of History, edited by Lloud, Grayson and Smith, Shannon, 283–297. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

Longman, Timothy. 2010. Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Lubkemann, Stephen C. 2008. Culture in Chaos: An Anthropology of the Social Condition in War. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Luthar, Suniya S. 2000. ‘The Construct of Resilience: A Critical Evaluation and Guidelines for future Work’. Child Development 71(3): 543–562.Google Scholar

Luthar, Suniya S. and Cicchetti, Dante. 2000. ‘The Construct of Resilience: Implications for Interventions and Social Policies’. Development and Psychopathology 12(4): 857–885.Google Scholar

Lynch, Megan F. 2014. ‘Civilian Agency in Times of Crisis: Lessons from Burundi’. In The Human Rights Paradox: Universality and Its Discontents, edited by Stern, Steven J. and Straus, Scott, 81–106. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar

MacGinty, Roger. 2014. ‘Everyday Peace: Bottom-Up and Local Agency in Conflict-Affected Societies’. Security Dialogue 45(6): 548–564.Google Scholar

Maier, Karl. 2000. This House Has Fallen: Midnight in Nigeria. New York, NY: Public Affairs.Google Scholar

Malik, Ichsan. 2003. Bakubae: The Community-Based Movement for Reconciliation Process in Maluku. Jakarta: BakuBae Maluku, Tifa Foundation and Yayasan Kemala.Google Scholar

Marc, Alexandre. 2009. ‘Making Societies more Resilient to Violence: A Conceptual Framework for the Conflict, Crime, and Violence Agenda’. World Bank Brief, 1 January. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/287621468155136976/Making-societies-more-resilient-to-violence-a-conceptual-framework-for-the-conflict-crime-and-violence-agenda.Google Scholar

Masten, Ann S., Best, Karin M., and Garmezy, Norman. 1990. ‘Resilience and Development: Contributions from the Study of Children Who Overcome Adversity’. Development and Psychopathology 2(4): 425–444.Google Scholar

Masullo, Juan J. 2017. ‘Civilian Noncooperation in Armed Conflicts. Refusing to Cooperate with Armed Groups as a Self-Protection Strategy’. Unpublished Working paper.Google Scholar

McLoughlin, Stephen. 2014. The Structural Prevention of Mass Atrocities: Understanding Risk and Resilience. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

McNair, Rachel. 1996. The Psychology of Peace: An Introduction. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.Google Scholar

McRae, Dave. 2013. A Few Poorly Organized Men: Interreligious Violence in Poso, Indonesia. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar

Mearns, David. 1996. ‘Class, Status and Habitus in Ambon’. In Remaking Maluku: Social Transformation in Eastern Indonesia, edited by Mearns, David and Healy, Chris, Northern Territory University, Special Monograph No. 1, 95–105. Darwin: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar

Mearns, David J. and Healey, Christopher J.. 1996. Remaking Maluku: Social Transformation in Eastern Indonesia. Northern Territory University, Special Monograph No. 1. Darwin: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar

Mehta, Mona G. 2013. ‘Networks of Death and Militant Vegetarianism: The Mechanics of Communal Violence in Gujarat’. India Review 12(2): 108–117.Google Scholar

Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. 2017. ‘Resilience’. www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/resilience.Google Scholar

Mietzner, Marcus. 2009. Military politics, Islam, and the state in Indonesia: From turbulent transition to democratic consolidation. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar

Milligan, Maren. 2013. ‘Fighting for the Right to Exist: Institutions, Identity, and Conflict in Jos, Nigeria’. Comparative Politics 45(3): 313–334.Google Scholar

Misol, Lisa. 2006. ‘Too High a Price: The Human Rights Cost of the Indonesian Military’s Economic Activities’. Human Rights Watch Report, 21 June. www.hrw.org/reports/2006/indonesia0606/.Google Scholar

Mitchell, Christopher. 2007. ‘The Theory and Practice of Sanctuary’. In Zones of Peace, edited by Hancock, Landon and Mitchell, Christopher, 1–28. Bloomfield, IL: Kumarin Press.Google Scholar

Mitchell, Christopher R. and Hancock, Landon E., eds. 2012. Local Peacebuilding and National Peace: Interaction between Grassroots and Elite Processes. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.Google Scholar

Modibbo, Muhammad Sani Adam 2012. ‘Survey of Muslim Groups in Plateau State, Nigeria’. Nigeria Research Network Working Paper No. 4. Oxford. https://www.qeh.ox.ac.uk/sites/www.odid.ox.ac.uk/files/BP4Modibbo.pdf.Google Scholar

Mohammad, Zulfan Tadjoeddin and Murshed, Syed Mansoob. 2007. ‘Socio-Economic Determinants of Everyday Violence in Indonesia: An Empirical Investigation of Javanese Districts, 1994–2003’. Journal of Peace Research 44(6): 689–709.Google Scholar

Mohammed, Abubakar Sokoto. 2004. ‘The Impact of Conflict on the Economy: The Case of Plateau State of Nigeria’. Overseas Development Institute. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.517.8276%26rep=rep1%26type=pdf.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2001a. ‘Morality and a Sense of Self: The Importance of Identity and Categorization for Moral Action’. American Journal of Political Science 45(3): 491–507.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2001b. ‘Paradigm Shift: From Rational Choice to Perspective’. International Political Science Review 22(2): 151–172.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2003. ‘How Identity and Perspective Constrain Moral Choice’. International Political Science Review 24(4): 405–425.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2004. The Hand of Compassion: Portraits of Moral Choice during the Holocaust. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2008. ‘Cracking the Code of Genocide: The Moral Psychology of Rescuers, Bystanders, and Nazis during the Holocaust’. Political Psychology 29(5): 699–736.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2009. ‘The Ethical Perspective: An Identity Theory of the Psychological Influences on Moral Choice’. Political Psychology 30(3): 419–444.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R. 2012. ‘Ethics in an Age of Terror and Genocide: Identity and Moral Choice’. PS Political Science and Politics 44(3): 503–507.Google Scholar

Monroe, Kristen R., Barton, Michael C., and Klingemann, Ute. 1990. ‘Altruism and the Theory of Rational Action: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe’. Ethics 101(1): 103–122.Google Scholar

Muluk, Hamdi and Malik, Ichsan. 2009. ‘Peace Psychology of Grassroots Reconciliation: Lessons Learned from the Baku Bae Peace Movement’. In Peace Psychology in Asia, edited by Noor, Noraini M. and Montiel, Cristina Jayme, 85–103. New York, NY: Springer Social Science and Business Media.Google Scholar

Mustapha, Abdul R. 2000. ‘Transformation of Minority Identities in Post-Colonial Nigeria’. In Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, edited by Jega, Attahiru, 86–108. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.Google Scholar

Mustapha, Abdul R., Higazi, Adam, Lar, Jimam, and Chromy, Karel. 2018. ‘Jos: Top-down and Bottom-Up Approaches to Conflict Resolution’. In Mustapha, Abdul R. and Ehrhardt, David, eds., Creed & Grievance: Muslim–Christian Relations and Conflict in Northern Nigeria. Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer.Google Scholar

Narula, Smita. 2002. ‘India: “We have no orders to save you”: State Participation and Complicity in Communal Violence in Gujarat’. Human Rights Watch Report, 30 April. www.hrw.org/reports/2002/india/India0402.htm.Google Scholar

Nelson, Donald R., W. Neil, Adger, and Brown, Katrina. 2007. ‘Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a Resilience Framework’. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 32: 395–419.Google Scholar

Newman, Lenore and Dale, Ann. 2005. ‘Network Structure, Diversity and Proactive Resilience Building: A Response to Tompkins and Adger’. Ecology and Society 10(1): 1–32.Google Scholar

Nina, Daniel 2000. ‘Dirty Harry Is Back: Vigilantism in South Africa – The (Re)Emergence of the “Good” and “Bad” Community’. African Security Review 9(1): 18–28.Google Scholar

Nnoli, Okwudiba 1978. Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.Google Scholar

Nnoli, Okwudiba 1995. Ethnicity and Development in Nigeria. Aldershot; Brookfield, VT: Avebury.Google Scholar

Nnoli, Okwudiba 2003. ‘Ethnic Violence in Nigeria: A Historical Perspective’. In Communal Conflict and Population Displacement in Nigeria, edited by Nnoli, Okwudiba, 13–45. Enugu: Pan African Centre for Research on Peace and Conflict Resolution.Google Scholar

Nordlinger, Eric. 1972. Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Center for International Affairs.Google Scholar

Nordstrom, Carolyn. 1997. A Different Kind of War Story. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

Nordstrom, Carolyn 1998. ‘Deadly Myths of Aggression’. Aggressive Behavior 24(2): 147–159.Google Scholar

Nordstrom, Carolyn 2007. ‘War on the Front Lines’. In Ethnographic Fieldwork: An Anthropological Reader, edited by Robben, Antonius C. G. M. and Sluka, Jeffrey A., 129–153. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar

Nordstrom, Carolyn and Robben, Antonius C. G. M.. 1995. Fieldwork under Fire: Contemporary Studies of Violence and Survival. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Norris, Fran H., Stevens, Susan P., Pfefferbaum, Betty, Wyche, Karen F., and Pfefferbaum, Rose L.. 2008. ‘Community Resilience as a Metaphor, Theory, Set of Capacities, and Strategy for Disaster Readiness’. American Journal of Community Psychology 41: 127–150.Google Scholar

Obateru, Taye. 2001. ‘Nigeria: Youth Association Condemns Crisis in Middle Belt’. The Vanguard, 16 July. http://allafrica.com/stories/200107180423.html.Google Scholar

Oberschall, Anthony. 1973. Social Conflict and Social Movements. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar

Obi, Cyril. 2004. ‘Nigeria: Democracy on Trial’. Occasional Electronic Paper No 1. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar

Ojukwu, Chris C., and Onifade, C. A.. 2010. ‘Social Capital, Indigeneity and Identity Politics: The Jos Crisis in Perspective’. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 4(5):173–180.Google Scholar

Okocha, Chuks, Ruben, Buhari, and Adinoyi, Seriki. 2008. ‘Death Toll in Jos Rises to 350’. This Day Nigeria, 30 November. http://allafrica.com/stories/200811300001.html.Google Scholar

Olaniyi, Muideen. 2010. ‘Nigeria: Fulanis Massacred in Front of Jang’s House’. Daily Trust, 24 January. http://allafrica.com/stories/201001250169.html.Google Scholar

Oliner, Samuel P. and Oliner, Pearl. M.. 1988. The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar

Olsen, Mancur. 1971. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Onoja, Adoyi. 2015. ‘Remapping Secured Neighbourhoods in Conflict Prone Nigeria: The Jos Example’. Developing Country Studies 5(7): 118–128.Google Scholar

Onuoha, Freedom C. 2010. ‘The Islamist Challenge: Nigeria’s Boko Haram Crisis Explained’. African Security Review 19(2): 54–67.Google Scholar

Oommen, Tharrileth K. 2005. Crisis and Contention in Indian Society. New Delhi: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Ostien, Philipp. 2009. ‘Jonah Jang and the Jasawa: Ethno-Religious Conflict in Jos, Nigeria’. Muslim–Christian Relations in Africa, August. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1456372.Google Scholar

Paden, John N. 2005. Muslim Civic Cultures and Conflict Resolution: The Challenge of Democratic Federalism in Nigeria. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar

Pamudji, M. Dr Nanang, Horiba, Akiko, Miqdad, Mohamad, Gogali, Nerlian and Loury, Sipasulta, . 2008. ‘The Success Story of Community Mechanism in Handling and Preventing Conflict: Case Studies at Wayame Village (Ambon-Moluccas) and Tangkura Village (Poso-Central Sulawesi)’. Report. Jakarta: Friedrich Ebert Foundation.Google Scholar

Panter-Brick, Catherine. 2010. ‘Conflict, Violence, and Health: Setting a New Interdisciplinary Agenda’. Social Science and Medicine 70(1): 1–6.Google Scholar

Panter-Brick, Catherine 2015. ‘Culture and Resilience: Next Steps for Theory and Practice’. In Youth Resilience and Culture, edited by Theron, Linda C., Liebenberg, Linda, and Ungar, Michael, 233–244. New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar

Panter-Brick, Catherine and Eggerman, Mark. 2012. ‘Understanding Culture, Resilience, and Mental Health: The Production of Hope’. In The Social Ecology of Resilience, edited by Ungar, Michael, 369–386. New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar

Pariela, Tonny. 2008. Damai di Tengah Konflik Maluku. Preserved Social Capital Sebagai Basis Survival Strategy. Ambon: Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana.Google Scholar

Para-Mallam, Oluwafunmilayo J., and Hoomlong, Kate. 2012. ‘A Critical Investigation into the Role of Security Sector Agencies in the Jos Conflict: Issues and Strategies for Institutional/Security Sector Reform’. African Peacebuilding Network. Social Science Research Council. Research Report, 10–55.Google Scholar

Pasquini, Margaret W. and Alexander, Michael J.. 2005. ‘Soil Fertility Management Strategies on the Jos Plateau: The Need for Integrating “Empirical” and “Scientific” Knowledge in Agricultural Development’. Geographical Journal 171(2): 112–124.Google Scholar

Pelling, Mark 2003. The Vulnerability of Cities: Natural Disasters and Social Resilience. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar

Pelling, Mark 2010. Adaptation to Climate Change: From Resilience to Transformation. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Petersen, Roger Dale. 2002. Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred and Resentment in Twentieth Century Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pfefferbaum, Betty, Reissman, Dori B., Pfefferbaum, Rose L., Klomp, Richard W., and Gurwitch, Robin H.. 2005. ‘Building Resilience to Mass Trauma Events’. In Handbook on Injury and Violence Prevention Interventions, edited by Doll, Lynda S., Bonzo, Sandra E., Mercy, James A., Sleet, David A., and Haas, E. N., 347–358. New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar

Plateau State Muslim Ummah. 2010. ‘Muslims Massacred Toll Recorded January 17, 2010’. Report by the Central Mosque in Jos, Nigeria. Unpublished document obtained in Jos.Google Scholar

Plotnicov, Leonard. 1967. Strangers to the City: Urban Man in Jos, Nigeria. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar

Plotnicov, Leonard 1972. ‘Who Owns Jos? Ethnic Ideology in Nigerian Urban Politics’. Urban Anthropology 1(1): 1–13.Google Scholar

Posner, Daniel N. 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pratten, David. 2008. ‘The Politics of Protection: Perspectives on Vigilantism in Nigeria’. Africa 78(1): 1–15.Google Scholar

Prunier, Gerard. 1995. The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Purdey, Jemma. 2004. ‘Describing Kekerasan: Some Observations on Writing about Violence in Indonesia after the New Order’. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 160: 189–225.Google Scholar

Putnam, Robert D. 1995. ‘Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital’. Journal of Democracy 6: 65–78.Google Scholar

Putnam, Robert D. 2001. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar

Reno, William. 1999a. ‘Crisis and (No) Reform in Nigeria’s Politics’. African Studies Review 42(1): 105–124.Google Scholar

Reno, William 1999b. Warlord Politics and African States. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Ritter, Nancy. 2009. ‘Cease Fire: A Public Health Approach to Reduce Shootings and Killings’. National Institute of Justice Journal, 264: 2–25.Google Scholar

Rittner, Carol and Myers, Sondra, eds. 1986. The Courage to Care: Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust. New York, NY: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Robben, Antonius C. G. M. and Sluka, Jeffrey A., eds. 2007. Ethnographic Fieldwork: An Anthropological Reader. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar

Roberts, Adam and Ash, Timothy Garton, eds. 2009. Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-Violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Rosenberg, Sherry P. 2012. ‘Genocide Is a Process, Not an Event’. Genocide Studies and Prevention 7(1): 16–23.Google Scholar

Rubin, Mark and Hewstone, Miles. 1998. ‘Social Identity Theory’s Self-Esteem Hypothesis: A Review and Some Suggestions for Clarification’. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2(1): 40–62.Google Scholar

Rutter, Michael 1987. ‘Psychosocial Resilience and Protective Mechanisms’. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57(3): 316–331.Google Scholar

Rutter, Michael 1999. ‘Resilience Concepts and Findings: Implications for Family Therapy’. Journal of Family Therapy 21(2): 119–144.Google Scholar

Rutter, Michael 2012. ‘Resilience as a Dynamic Concept’. Development and Psychopathology 24(2): 335–344.Google Scholar

Ryter, Loren. 1998. ‘Pemuda Pancasila: The Last Loyalist Free Men of Suharto’s Order?’ Indonesia 66: 45–73.Google Scholar

Sarkees, Meredith Reid. 2014. ‘Patterns of Civil Wars in the Twenty-First Century. The Decline of Civil War?’ In Routledge Handbook of Civil Wars, edited by Newman, Edward and DeRouen, Karl, 236–256. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Scacco, Alexandra. 2010. ‘Who Riots? Explaining Individual Participation in Ethnic Violence’. PhD dissertation excerpt. New York: Columbia University.Google Scholar

Schulze, Kirsten S. 2002. ‘Laskar Jihad and the Conflict in Ambon’. Brown Journal of World Affairs 9(1): 57–69.Google Scholar

Shehu, Sani. 2007. The Killing Fields: Religious Violence in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.Google Scholar

Sidel, John T. 2006. Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Simmel, Georg. 1955. Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar

Smit, Barry and Wandel, Johanna. 2006. ‘Adaptation, Adaptive Capacity and Vulnerability’. Global Environmental Change 16(3): 282–292.Google Scholar

Smith, Daniel J. 2004. ‘The Bakassi Boys: Vigilantism, Violence, and Political Imagination in Nigeria’. Cultural Anthropology 19(3): 429–455.Google Scholar

South, Ashley. 2010. ‘Conflict and Survival: Self-Protection in South-East Burma’. Asia Programme paper. April. London: Chatham House.Google Scholar

Spyer, Patricia. 2002. ‘Fire without Smoke and Other Phantoms of Ambon’s Violence: Media Effects, Agency, and the Work of Imagination’. Indonesia 74: 21–36.Google Scholar

Staniland, Paul. 2014. ‘Violence and Democracy’. Comparative Politics 47(1): 99–118.Google Scholar

Staub, Ervin. 1989. The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Staub, Ervin 2000. ‘Genocide and Mass Killing: Origins, Prevention, Healing and Reconciliation’. Political Psychology 21(2): 367–382.Google Scholar

Stockholm Resilience Centre. 2017. “Resilience Dictionary.” www.stockholmresilience.org/research/resilience-dictionary.html.Google Scholar

Straus, Scott. 2006. The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Straus, Scott 2012. ‘Retreating from the Brink: Theorizing Mass Violence and the Dynamics of Restraint’. Perspectives on Politics 10(2): 343–362.Google Scholar

Straus, Scott 2015. Making and Unmaking Nations: War, Leadership, and Genocide in Modern Africa. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Straus, Scott and Taylor, Charlie. 2009. ‘Democratization and Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–2007’. American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Toronto. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1451561.Google Scholar

Suberu, Rotimi T. 2001. Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace.Google Scholar

Suberu, Rotimi T. 2009. ‘Religion and Institutions: Federalism and the Management of Conflicts over Sharia in Nigeria’. Journal of International Development 21(4): 547–560.Google Scholar

Sukma, Rizal. 2005. ‘Ethnic Conflicts in Indonesia: Causes and the Quest for Solution’. In Ethnic Conflicts in Southeast Asia, edited by Snitwongse, Kusuma and Thompson, W. Scott, 1–41. Singapore: Institute of Security and International Studies.Google Scholar

Sundberg, Ralph, Eck, Kristine, and Kreutz, Joakim. 2012. ‘Introducing the UCDP Non-State Conflict Dataset’. Journal of Peace Research 49(2): 351–362.Google Scholar

Tadjoeddin, Mohammed Z. 2002. ‘Anatomy of Social Violence in the Context of Transition: The Case of Indonesia’. UNSFIR Working paper. 1 February. www.conflictrecovery.org/Zulfan%20-%20Anatomy%20of%20social%20violence%20-%20April%202002.pdf.Google Scholar

Tadjoeddin, Mohammed Z. 2004. ‘Civil Society Engagement and Communal Violence: Reflections of Various Hypotheses in the Context of Indonesia’. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=767364.Google Scholar

Tadjoeddin, Mohammed Z. 2007. ‘Socio-Economic Determinants of Everyday Violence in Indonesia: An Empirical Investigation of Javanese Districts, 1994–2003’. Journal of Peace Research 44(6): 689–709.Google Scholar

Tadjoeddin, Mohammed Z. and Chowdhury, Anis. 2009. ‘Socioeconomic Perspectives on Violent Conflict in Indonesia’. Economics of Peace and Security 39: 39–49.Google Scholar

Tajfel, Henri. 1972. ‘Social Categorization’. English manuscript of ‘La categorisation sociale’. In Introduction a la Psychologie Sociale, edited by Moscovici, Serge, 272–302. Paris: Larousse.Google Scholar

Tajfel, Henri 1982. ‘Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations’. Annual Review of Psychology, 33(1): 1–39.Google Scholar

Tajfel, Henri and Turner, John C.. 1979. ‘An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict’. In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by Austin, William G. and Worchel, Stephen, 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar

Tajima, Yuhki. 2013. ‘The Institutional Basis of Intercommunal Order: Evidence from Indonesia’s Democratic Transition’. American Journal of Political Science 57(1): 104–119.Google Scholar

Tambiah, Stanley. J. 1990. ‘Presidential Address: Reflections on Communal Violence in South Asia’. The Journal of Asian Studies 49(4): 141–160.Google Scholar

Tambiah, Stanley. J. 1996. Levelling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflict and Collective Violence in South Asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Tanamal, Pieter and Trijono, Lambang. 2004. ‘Religious Conflict in Maluku: In Search of Religious Community Peace’. In The Making of Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Southeast Asia: Cases and Resolutions, edited by Trijono, Lambang, 231–255. Yogyakarta: CSPS Books.Google Scholar

Tarrow, Sidney. 2010. ‘The Strategy of Paired Comparison: Toward a Theory of Practice’. Comparative Political Studies 43(2): 230–259.Google Scholar

Tec, Nechama. 1986. When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Tec, Nechama 1993. Defiance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Tempo. 2001. ‘Belajar Damai dari Waiyame’. Tempo, 30 December, https://majalah.tempo.co/konten/2001/12/26/NAS/86656/Belajar-Damai-dari-Waiyame/43/30.Google Scholar

Tertsakian, Carina. 2005. ‘Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau and Kano States’. Human Rights Watch Report, 25 May. 375 www.hrw.org/report/2005/05/25/revenge-name-religion/cycle-violence-plateau-and-kano-states.Google Scholar

Tertsakian, Carina and Smart, Malcom. 2001. ‘Jos: A City Torn Apart’. Human Rights Watch Report, 18 December. www.hrw.org/report/2001/12/18/jos/city-torn-apart.Google Scholar

Thalhammer, Kristina E. 2012. ‘Genocide and the Psychology of Perpetrators, Bystanders, and Victims’. Perspectives on Politics 10(2): 418–421.Google Scholar

Thapa, G. B. and Yila, Othniel M.. 2012. ‘Farmers’ Land Management Practices and Status of Agricultural Land in the Jos Plateau, Nigeria’. Land Degradation & Development 23(3): 263–277.Google Scholar

Theidon, Kimberly. 2012. Intimate Enemies: Violence and Reconciliation in Peru. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

This Day. 2012. ‘8 Killed as Bombers Target Jang’s Church’. 27 February. www.thisdaylive.com/articles/8-killed-as-bombers-target-jang-s-church/110170.Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles. 1986. ‘European Violence and Collective Action since 1700’. Social Research 53(1): 159–184Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles 2003. The Politics of Collective Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles and Tarrow, Sidney. G.. 2007. Contentious Politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Tronto, Joan C. 2012. ‘Genocide and the Psychology of Perpetrators, Bystanders, and Victims’. Perspectives on Politics 10(2): 421–424.Google Scholar

Turiel, Elliot. 1983. The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality and Convention. Cambridge; New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Turkmani, Rim, with Ali, Ali A. K., Kaldor, Mary, and Bojicic-Dzelilovic, Vesna. 2015. Countering the Logic of the War Economy in Syria: Evidence from Three Local Areas. LSE Department of International Development, Civil Society and Human Security Research Unit. www.securityintransition.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Countering-war-economy-Syria2.pdf.Google Scholar

Tyoden, Sonni G. 1993. The Middle Belt in Nigerian Politics. Jos: AHA.Google Scholar

Ukiwo, Ukoha. 2003. ‘Politics, Ethno-Religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria’. Journal of Modern African Studies 41(1): 115–138.Google Scholar

Ukiwo, Ukoha 2005. ‘The Study of Ethnicity in Nigeria’. Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity. Working paper. June.University of Oxford.Google Scholar

USAID West Africa. 2010. ‘Early Warning and Response Design Support (EDWARDS): Jos Conflict Assessment’. Final Report. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pdacu129.pdf.Google Scholar

Varshney, Ashutosh. 2001. ‘Ethnic Conflict and Civil Society: India and Beyond’. World Politics 53(3): 362–398.Google Scholar

Varshney, Ashutosh 2002. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Varshney, Ashutosh 2007. ‘Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict’. In Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics, edited by Boix, Carles and Stokes, Susan C., 274–295. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Varshney, Ashutosh, Tadjoeddin, Mohammed Z., and Panggabean, Rizal. 2008. ‘Creating Datasets in Information-Poor Environments: Patterns of Collective Violence in Indonesia, 1990–2003’. Journal of East Asian Studies 8(3): 361–394.Google Scholar

Verkaaik, Oskar. 2003. ‘Fun and Violence: Ethnocide and the Effervescence of Collective Aggression’. Social Anthropology 11(1): 3–22.Google Scholar

Vigil, James Diego. 2003. ‘Urban Violence and Street Gangs’. Annual Review of Anthropology 32(1): 225–242.Google Scholar

De Waal, Frans B. M. 2008. ‘Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy’. Annual Review of Psychology 59: 279–300.Google Scholar

Walker, Brian and Salt, David. 2006. Resilience Thinking: Sustaining Ecosystems and People in a Changing World. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar

Walker, Jeremy, and Cooper, Melinda. 2011. ‘Genealogies of Resilience from Systems Ecology to the Political Economy of Crisis Adaptation’. Security Dialogue 42(2): 143–160.Google Scholar

Walker, Rob. 2011. ‘Jos Violence: “Everyone Lives in Fear of His Neighbour”’. BBC News, 7 April. www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12985289.Google Scholar

Wallace, Marshall 2002. ‘Tuzla, Bosnia: Cross-Ethnic Solidarity in the Face of Ethnic Cleansing’. CDA Learning Collaborative. http://cdacollaborative.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Tuzla-Bosnia-Cross-Ethnic-Solidarity-in-the-Face-of-Ethnic-Cleansing.pdf.Google Scholar

Waller, James. 2007. Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Watanabe, John M. 1992. Maya Saints and Souls in a Changing World. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Wax, Emily. 2002. ‘Islam Attracting Many Survivors of Rwanda Genocide’. Washington Foreign Post Service, 23 September. www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A53018-2002Sep22.html.Google Scholar

Wedeen, Lisa. 2010. ‘Reflections on Ethnographic Work in Political Science’. Annual Review of Political Science 13: 255–272.Google Scholar

Weiner, Myron. 1978. Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Wilkinson, Steven I. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. Cambridge, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wilkinson, Steven I. 2009. ‘Riots’. Annual Review of Political Science 12: 329–343.Google Scholar

Wilkinson, Steven I. 2012. ‘A Constructivist Model of Ethnic Riots’. In Constructivist Theories of Ethnic Politics, edited by Chandra, Kanchan, 359–386. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Wilkinson, Steven I. 2013. Electoral Competition, the State, and Communal Violence: A Reply’. India Review 12(2): 92–107.Google Scholar

Williams, Paul D. 2013. ‘Protection, Resilience and Empowerment: United Nations Peacekeeping and Violence against Civilians in Contemporary War Zones’. Politics 33(4): 287–298.Google Scholar

Wilson, Ian D. 2006. ‘Continuity and Change: The Changing Contours of Organized Violence in Post–New Order Indonesia’. Critical Asian Studies 38(2): 265–297.Google Scholar

Wilson, Ian D. 2008. ‘As Long as It’s Halal: Islamic Preman in Jakarta’. In Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia, edited by Fealy, Greg and White, Sally, 192–211. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar

Wimmer, Andreas. 2008. ‘Elementary Strategies of Ethnic Boundary Making’. Ethnic and Racial Studies 31(6): 1025–1055.Google Scholar

Wood, Elisabeth J. 2003. Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wood, Elisabeth J. 2006. ‘The Ethical Challenges of Field Research in Conflict Zones’. Qualitative Sociology 29(3): 373–386.Google Scholar

Wood, Elisabeth J. 2008. ‘The Social Processes of Civil War: The Wartime Transformation of Social Networks’. Political Science 11(1): 539–561.Google Scholar

Wood, Elisabeth J. 2015. ‘Social Mobilization and Violence in Civil War and Their Social Legacies’. The Oxford Handbook of Social Movements, edited by Della Porta, Donatella and Diani, Mario, 452–466. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Ya’u, Yunusa Zakari 2000. ‘The Youth, Economic Crisis and Identity Transformation: The Case of the Yandaba in Kano’. In Identity Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, edited by Jega, Attahiru, 161–180. Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.Google Scholar

Zimmermann, Marc and Brenner, Alison B. 2010. ‘Resilience in Adolescence: Overcoming Neighbourhood Disadvantage’. In Handbook of Adult Resilience, edited by Reich, John W., Zautra, Alex J., and Hall, John S., 283–308. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar