The self and psychiatry: a conceptual history

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511543708.002

1 - The self and psychiatry: a conceptual history

from Part I - Conceptual background

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 December 2009

German E. Berrios and

Ivana S. Marková

Edited by

Tilo Kircher and

Anthony David

Show author details

German E. Berrios: Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, UK
Ivana S. Marková: Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Hull, UK
Tilo Kircher: Affiliation:
Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Germany
Anthony David: Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, London

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Abstract

The concept of self is a construct. It is not a ‘natural kind’ sited somewhere in the human brain. The western concept of self emphasizes individualism and autonomy but this view is cultural and no more scientific or truthful or advanced than the syncytial or collective view of self developed in other cultures and which revolves around family or clan rather than individual. Originally meant by St Augustine to be just a metaphorical or virtual space within which theological models of responsibility, guilt and sin could be played out, the self regained importance in the hands of Luther who started its reification as a private cave where god and man would regularly meet to sort out their differences. During the seventeenth century, the metaphors of the Reformation become secularized and built into liberalism and capitalism. The self survived by becoming a conceptual prop for bourgeois notions such as individual ownership, natural rights and democracy.

Wanting to reinforce the political status quo, nineteenth-century science transformed the political self into a psychological entity and proceeded to ‘naturalize it’ (i.e. render it into a natural kind). This additional reification engendered curious inferences. One was the belief that a ‘self’ really existed inside the European mind and brain. This self was characterized as driving, organized, executive and with a capacity for leadership and domination.

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: The Self in Neuroscience and Psychiatry , pp. 9 - 39

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511543708.002 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Allen, R. C. (1999). David Hartley on Human Nature. New York: State University of New York Press

Ameriks, K. (1997). Kant and the self: a retrospective. In Figuring the Self. Subject, Absolute, and Others in Classical German Philosophy, ed. D. E. Klemm & G. Zöller, pp. 55–72. New York: State University of New York Press

Ameriks, K. (2000). Kant's Theory of Mind, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Ameriks, K. & Sturma, D. (1995). The Modern Subject. Conceptions of the Self in Classical German Philosophy. New York: State University of New York Press

Annas, J. (1992). Aristotle on memory and the self. In Essays on Aristotle's De Anima, ed. M. Nussbaum & A. O. Rorty, pp. 299–311. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Arénilla, L. (2000). Luther et notre Société Liberale. Paris: L'Harmattan

Baillarger, J. (1853). Essai sur une classification des différents genres de folie. Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 5, 545–66Google Scholar

Baker, G. & Morris, K. J. (1996). Descartes' Dualism. London: Routledge

Bakhurst, D. & Sypnowich, C. (eds) (1995). The Social Self. London: Sage

Baldwin, J. M. (1903). Mental Development in the Child and the Race. New York: Macmillan

Bastian, H. C. (1887). The muscular sense: its nature and cortical localization. Brain, 10, 1–137Google Scholar

Beck, L. W. (1996). Early German Philosophy. Bristol: Thoemmes Press

Bellak, L. (1958). Schizophrenia. New York: Logos Press

Berrios, G. E. (1992). Phenomenology, psychopathology and Jaspers: a conceptual history. History of Psychiatry, 3, 303–27Google Scholar

Berrios, G. E. (1996). The History of Mental Symptoms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Berrios, G. E. (2000). Schizophrenia: a conceptual history. In New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry, vol. 1, ed. M. Gelder, J. J. López-Ibor & N. C. Andreasen, pp. 567–71. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Berrios, G. E. (2002). The face in medicine and psychology: a conceptual history. In The Human Face: Measurement and Meaning, ed. M. Katsikitis, pp. 49–62. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Berrios, G. E. & Marková, I. S. (1998). Insight in the psychosis: a conceptual history. In Insight in the Psychosis, ed. A. David & D. Amador, pp. 33–56. New York: Oxford University Press

Berrios, G. E. & Marková, I. S. (2002a). The concept of neuropsychiatry. A historical overview. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 629–38Google Scholar

Berrios, G. E. & Marková, I. S. (2002b). Biological psychiatry: conceptual issues. In Biological Psychiatry, ed. H. D'haenen, J. A. den Boer, H. Westenberg & P. Willner, pp. 3–24. New York: Wiley

Berze, J. (1914). Die Primäre Insuffizienz der Psychischen Aktivität. Ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungen und ihre Bedeutung als Gründstorung der dementia praecox und der Hypophrenien überhaupt. Leipzig: Franz Deuticke

Berze, J. (1987). Primary insufficiency of mental activity. In The Clinical Roots of the Schizophrenia Concept, ed. J. Cutting & M. Shepherd, pp. 51–8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Berze, J. & Gruhle, H. W. (1929). Psychologie der Schizophrenie. Berlin: Springer Verlag von Julius Springer

Biro, J. (1993). Hume's new science of the mind. In The Cambridge Companion to Hume, ed. D. F. Norton, pp. 33–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Bleuler, E. (1911). Dementia Praecox oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Leipzig: Franz Deuticke

Bleuler, E. (1924). Textbook of Psychiatry. Translated by A. A. Brill. New York: Macmillan

Blondel, C. (1924). La personnalité. In Traité de Psychologie, vol. 2, ed. C. Dumas, pp. 522–74. Paris: Alcan

Bonnier, P. (1905). L'aschématie. Revue Neurologique, 13, 605–9Google Scholar

Boring, E. G. (1953). A history of introspection. Psychological Bulletin, 50, 169–89Google Scholar

Bourgeois, M. & Geraud, M. (1990). Eugène Azam (1822–1899). Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 148, 709–17Google Scholar

Breazeale, D. (1995). Check or checkmate? The infinitude of the Fichtean self. In The Modern Subject. Conceptions of the Self in Classical German Philosophy, ed. K. Ameriks & D. Sturma, pp. 87–114. New York: State University of New York Press

Brentano, F. (1973). Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Bricke, J. (1980). Hume's Philosophy of Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press

Brook, A. (1994). Kant and the Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Burke, P. (1997). Representations of the self from Petrarch to Descartes. In Rewriting the Self. Histories from the Renaissance to the Present, ed. R. Porter, pp. 17–28. London: Routledge

Burns, R. B. (1979). The Self Concept. Theory, Measurement, Development and Behaviour. London: Longman

Bynum, W. F. (1976). Varieties of Cartesian experience in early nineteenth century neurophysiology. In Philosophical Dimensions of the Neuro-Sciences, ed. S. F. Spicker & H. T. Engelhardt, pp. 15–33. Dordrecht: Reidel

Cabaleiro, M. (1966). Temas Psiquiátricos. Algunas Cuestiones Psicopatológicas Generales, pp. 321–420. Madrid: Paz Montalvo

Carlson, E. (1989). Multiple personality and hypnosis. The first one hundred years. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 25, 315–22

Carroy, J. (1993). Les Personnalités Doubles et Multiples. Entre Science et Fiction. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France

Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (eds) (1994). Disorders and Dysfunctions of the Self. New York: University of Rochester Press

Condillac (1984). Traité des Sensations. Paris: Fayard

Coons, P. M (1993). L'epidemiologie des personnalités multiples et la dissociation. Nervure: Journal de Psychiatrie, 6, 38–47Google Scholar

Cutler, B. & Reed, J. (1975). Multiple personalities. Psychological Medicine, 5, 18–26Google Scholar

Dagonet, M. H. (1881). Conscience et aliénation mentale. Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 5, 368–97; 6, 19–32Google Scholar

Danziger, K. (1997a). Naming the Mind. London: Sage

Danziger, K. (1997b). The historical formation of selves. In Self and Identity, ed. R. D. Ashmore & L. Jussim, pp. 137–59. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Davies, C. G. (1990). Conscience as Consciousness: The Idea of Self-awareness in French Philosophical Writing from Descartes to Diderot. Oxford: the Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution

Delasiauve, L. J. F. (1870). Discussion sur les aliénes avec consciences Annales médico-Psychologiques, 3, 103–9, 126–30, 290–1, 307–9

Des Chene, D. (2000). Life's Form. Late Aristotelian Conceptions of the Soul. Ithaca: Cornell University Press

Descartes (1967). The Philosophical Works. Translated by E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Despine, P. (1875). De la Folie au Point de Vue Philosophique ou plus Spécialement Psychologique. Paris: Savy

De Vita, D. J. (1965). The Concept of Identity. The Hague: Mouton

Drever, J. (1965). The historical background for national trends in psychology: on the non-existence of English associationism. Journal of the History of Behavioral Sciences, 1, 123–30Google Scholar

Falret, J. P. (1866). Discussion sur la folie raisonnante. Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 7, 382–426Google Scholar

Fleming, W. (1857). The Vocabulary of Philosophy. London: Griffin

Foster, J. (1991). The Immaterial Self. A Defence of the Cartesian Dualist Conception of the Mind. London: Routledge

Foucault, M. (1984). The Souci de Soi. Paris: Gallimard

Franck, A. (1875). Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques, 2nd edn., Paris: Hachette

Frondizi, R. (1952). Substancia y Función en el Problema del Yo. Buenos Aires: Editorial Lozada

Gallagher, S. & Shear, J. (eds) (1999). Models of the Self. Thorverton: Imprint Academic

Garber, D. & Ayers, M. (eds) (1998). The Cambridge History of Seventeenth Century Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Gergen, K. J. (1998). The ordinary, the original, and the believable in psychology's construction of the person. In Reconstructing the Psychological Subject. Bodies, Practices and Technologies, ed. B. M. Bayer & J. Shotter, pp. 111–25. London: Sage

Gibson, J. (1968). Locke's Theory of Knowledge and its Historical Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Ginzo, A. (2000). Protestantismo y Filosofía. La Recepción de la Reforma en la Filosofía Alemana. Madrid: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alcalá

Goettman, C., Greaves, G. B. & Coones, P. M. (1994). Multiple Personalities and Dissociation 1791–1992. A Complete Bibliography. Lutherville: Sidran Press

Gold, J. (1985). Cartesian dualism and the current crisis in medicine – a plea for a philosophical approach: discussion paper. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 78, 663–6Google Scholar

Goldstein, J. (2000). Mutations of the self in old regime and post-revolutionary France. In Biographies of Scientific Objects, ed. L. Daston, pp. 86–116. Chicago: Chicago University Press

Gouhier, H. (1978). Cartésianisme et augustinisme au XVIIXVIIesiècle. Paris: Vrin

Gueroult, M. (1987). Étendue et Psychologie chez Malebranche. Paris: Vrin

Guislain, J. (1852). Leçons Orales sur les Phrénopathies, ou Traité Théorique et Pratique des Maladies Mentales. Gand: Hebbelynck

Hacking, I. (1992). Multiple personality disorder and its hosts. History of the Human Sciences, 5, 3–31Google Scholar

Hacking, I. (1995). Rewriting the Soul. Multiple Personalities and the Sciences of Memory. Princeton: Princeton University Press

Hamilton, W. (1859). Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic, vol. 1. Edinburgh: William Blackwood

Hanafi, Z. (2000). The Monster in the Machine. Durham: Duke University Press

Hartle, A. (1983). The Modern Self in Rousseau's ‘Confessions’: A Reply to St Augustine. Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press

Hartman, E. (1977). Substance, Body and Soul. Aristotelian Investigations. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press

Helvétius, C. A. (1771). De l'Esprit. Amsterdam: Arkstée & Merkus

Henle, J. (1841). Allgemeine Anatomie. Leipzig: Voss

Hoeldtke, R. (1967). The history of associationism and British medical psychology. Medical History, 11, 46–64Google Scholar

Hume, D. (1967). A Treatise of Human Nature. Selby-Bigge edition. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Hundert, E. J. (1997). The European enlightenment and the history of the self. In Rewriting the Self. Histories from the Renaissance to the Present, ed. R. Porter, pp. 72–83. London: Routledge

Jaspers, K. (1913). Allgemeine Psychopathologie, 1st edn. Berlin: Springer

Jaspers, K. (1948). Allgemeine Psychopathologie, 5th edn. Berlin: Springer

Jones, E. G. (1972). The development of the ‘muscular sense’ concept during the nineteenth century and the work of H. Charlton Bastian. Journal of the History of Medicine, 27, 298–311Google Scholar

Jouffroy, T. (1826). Préface de traducteur. In Esquisse de Philosophie Morale, ed. D. Stewart, pp. ⅰ–ⅽⅼⅱ. Paris: Johanneau

Keller, P. (1998). Kant and the Demands of Self-consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kitcher, P. (1990). Kant's Transcendental Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Kneller, J. E. (1997). Conceptions of the self in Hölderlin and Novalis. In Figuring the Self. Subject, Absolute, and Others in Classical German Philosophy, ed. D. E. Klemm & G. Zöller, pp. 134–48. New York: State University of New York Press

Kofman, S. (1973). Camera Obscura. Paris: Galilée

Kogan, A. A. (1969). El Yo y el Sí mismo. Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de America Latina

Kraepelin, E. (1883). Compendium der Psychiatrie. Leipzig: Abel

Kraepelin, E. (1887). Psychiatrie. Ein kurzes Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aertze, 2nd edn. Leipzig: Abel

Kraepelin, E. (1896). Psychiatrie. Ein kurzes Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aertze, 5th edn. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Kraepelin, E. (1899). Psychiatrie. Ein kurzes Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aertze, 6th edn. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Kraepelin, E. (1901). Einführung in die psychiatrische Klinik. Dreissig Vorlesungen. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Kraepelin, E. (1909). Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aertze, vol. 1. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Kraepelin, E. (1909–15). Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aertze. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Kraepelin, E. (1913). Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aertze, vol. 3. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Krishaber, M. (1873). De la Névropathie Cérébro-cardiaque. Paris: Masson

Laing, R. D. (1961). The Divided Self. London: Tavistock

Lanteri-Laura, G. & Gros, M. (1984). La Discordance. Paris: Unicet

Laurent, A. (1993). Histoire de L'Individualisme. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France

Levin, J. D. (1992). Theories of the Self. Washington: Hemisphere

Lévy-Bruhl, L. (1928). The ‘soul’ of the primitive. Translated by L. A. Clare. London: George Allen & Unwin

Lewis, N. D. C. (1936). Research in Dementia Praecox. New York: Supreme Council of the North Masonic Jurisdiction of the United States of America

Littré, E. (1878). Dictionnaire de la Langue Française, Paris: Hachette

Lloyd, G. E. R. (1968). Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Locke, J. (1959). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Collated and annotated by A. C. Fraser. New York: Dover Publications

Long, A. A. (1991). Representation and the self in stoicism. In Psychology. Companion to Ancient Thought 2, ed. S. Everson, pp. 102–20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Lowe, E. J. (1996). Subjects of Experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Marsella, A. J., DeVos, G. & Hsu, F. L. K. (eds) (1985). Culture and the Self. Asian and Western Perspectives. London: Tavistock Publications

Martin, R. & Barresi, J. (1999). Naturalization of the Soul: Self and Personal Identity in the Eighteenth Century. London: Routledge

Maudsley, H. (1895). The Pathology of Mind. London: Macmillan

McCabe, M. M. (1994). Plato's Individuals. Princeton: Princeton University Press

McCracken, C. J. (1983). Malebranche and British Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press

McGrath, A. E. (1999). Reformation Thought. Oxford: Blackwells

Mendus, S. (1984). Kant's doctrine of the self. Kant Studien, 75, 55–64Google Scholar

Mischel, T. (ed.) (1977). The Self. Psychological and Philosophical Issues. Oxford: Blackwell

Modell, A. H. (1993). The Private Self. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Mondolfo, R. (1955). La Comprensión del Sujeto Humano en la Cultura Antigua. Buenos Aires: Imán

Moore, F. C. T. (1970). The Psychology of Maine de Biran. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Morel, B. A. (1870). Discussion sur les aliénés avec conscience. Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 3, 110–19Google Scholar

Morris, C. (1972). The Discovery of the Individual 1050–1200. London: SPCK

Müller, J. P. (1946). Los Fenómenos Fantásticos de la Visión. Translated by J. M. Sacristán. Madrid: Espasa Calpe

Müller-Sievers, H. (1997). Self-generation: Biology, Philosophy and Literature Around 1800. Stanford: Stanford University Press

Neisser, U. (ed.) (1993). The Perceived Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Neisser, U. & Fivush, R. (eds) (1994). The Remembering Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Neuhouser, F. (1990). Fichte's Theory of Subjectivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

O'Meara, D. J. (1995). Plotinus. An Introduction to the Enneads. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Oesterreich, K. (1910). Die Phänomenologie des Ich in ihren Grundproblemen. First part: Das Ich und das Selbstbewu[W9]tsein. Die scheinbare Spaltung des Ich. Leipzig: J. A. Barth

Oesterreich, M. (1954). Traugott Konstantin Oesterreich. Stuttgart: Fromanns

Onians, R. B. (1954). The Origins of European Thought: About the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World Time, and Fate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Parant, V. (1888). La Raison dans la Folie. Paris: Doin

Perkins, J. A. (1969). The Concept of the Self in the French Enlightenment. Geneva: Droz

Perry, J. (1993). The Problem of the Essential Indexical. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Pick, A. (1904). Zur Pathologie des Ich-Bewusstseins. Studie aus der allgemeinen Psychopathologie. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 38, 22–33 [See: Pick, A. (1996). On the pathology of the consciousness of the self. Translated by R. Viviani & G. E. Berrios. History of Psychiatry, 7, 324–32]Google Scholar

Pigeaud, J. (2001). Aux Portes de la Psychiatrie. Pinel, l'Ancient et le Moderne. Paris: Aubier

Plotinus (1966). Ennead 1. Translated by A. H. Armstrong. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Prichard, J. C. (1835). A Treatise on Insanity and other Disorders Affecting the Mind. London: Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper

Prince, M. (1929). The Unconscious, 2nd edn. New York: Macmillan

Rappe, S. (2000). Reading Neoplatonism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Reesor, M. E. (1989). The Nature of Man in Early Stoic Philosophy. London: Duckworth

Reil, J. C. (1803). Rhapsodien. Halle: Unveraenderter Nachdruck der Ausgabe

Renaut, A. (1997). The Era of the Individual. A Contribution to the History of Subjectivity. Translated by M. B. De Bevoise & F. Philip. rinceton: Princeton University Press

Ribot, T. (1887). The Diseases of the Personality. Translated by J. Fitzgerald. New York: Humboldt Library

Rieber, R. W. (1999). Hypnosis, false memory and multiple personality: a trinity of affinity. History of Psychiatry, 10, 3–11Google Scholar

Riobó, M. (1988). Fichte, Filósofo de la Intersubjetividad. Barcelona: Herder

Rose, N. (1996). Inventing our Selves. Psychology, Power and Personhood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Rousseau, N. (1986). Connaissance et Langage chez Condillac. Geneva: Droz

Royer-Collard, A.-A. (1843). Examen de la doctrine de Maine de Biran sur les rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme. Annales Medico-psychologiques, 2, 1–45Google Scholar

Russon, J. (1997). The Self and its Body in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit. Toronto: Toronto University Press

Sandbach, F. H. (1994). The Stoics, 2nd edn. London: Duckworth

Sauri, J. J. (1989). Persona y Personalización. Buenos Aires: Carlos Lohlé

Sawday, J. (1997). Self and selfhood in the seventeenth century. In Rewriting the Self. Histories from the Renaissance to the Present, ed. R. Porter, pp. 29–48. London: Routledge

Schacter, D. L. (1982). Stranger behind the Engram. Theories of Memory and the Psychology of Science. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum

Schiller, F. (1984). Coenesthesis. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 58, 496–515Google Scholar

Schmaltz, T. M. (1996). Malebranche's Theory of the Soul. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Schoenfeldt, M. C. (1999). Bodies and Selves in Early Modern England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Sepper, D. L. (1996). Descartes's Imagination. Proportion, Images, and the Activity of Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press

Sierra, M. & Berrios, G. E. (1996). L. Dugas et un cas de dépersonalisation. History of Psychiatry, 7, 451–62Google Scholar

Sierra, M. & Berrios, G. E. (1997). Depersonalization: a conceptual history. History of Psychiatry, 8, 213–29Google Scholar

Snell, B. (1953). The Discovery of the Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Spanos, N. P. (1996). Multiple Identities and False Memories. Washington: American Psychological Association

Spiegelberg, H. (1972). Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry. Evanston: Northwestern University Press

Spitzer, M. (1988). Ichstörungen: in search of a theory. In Psychopathology and Philosophy, ed. M. Spitzer, F. A. Uehlein & G. Oepen, pp. 167–83. Heidelberg: Springer

Starobinski, J. (1977). Le concept de cénesthésie et les idées neuropsychologiques de Moritz Schiff. Gesnerus, 37, 2–19Google Scholar

Starobinski, J. (1990). A short history of bodily sensation. Psychological Medicine, 20, 23–33Google Scholar

St Augustine (1991). Confessions. A New Translation by Henry Chadwick. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Störring, G. (1900). Vorlesungen über Psychopathologie in irher Bedeutung für die normale Psychologie. Leipzig: Engelmann

Strauss, J. & Goethals, G. R. (1991). The Self: Interdisciplinary Approaches. Berlin: Springer

Suber, P. (1990). A case study in ad hominem arguments: Fichte's science of knowledge. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 23, 12–42Google Scholar

Swain, G. (1978). L'aliéné entre le médecin et le philosophe. Perspectives Psychiatriques, 1, 90–9Google Scholar

Tallon, H. J. (1939). The Concept of Self in British and American Idealism. Washington: Catholic University of America Press

Tauber, A. I. (1997). The Immune Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the Self. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Taylor, W. S. & Martin, M. F. (1944). Multiple personalities. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 39, 281–300Google Scholar

Thandeka (1995) Embodied Self, the Friedrich Schleiermacher's Solution to Kant's Problem of the Emperical self. New York: State University of New York Press

Viviani, R. (1998). The Notion of Self and Mental Automatism in 19th Century French and German Psychopathology. PhD Dissertation. Cambridge: University of Cambridge

von Feuchtersleben, E. (1847). The Principles of Medical Psychology. Translated by H. E. Evans and B. G. Babington. London: Sydenham Society

von Krafft-Ebing, R. (1904). Textbook of Insanity. Philadelphia: A. Davis

Weber, M. (1958). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Translated by Talcott Parsons. New York: Scribner's

Weber, E. H. (1996). On the Tactile senses, 2nd edn. Translated by H. E. Ross & David J. Murray. Hove: Erlbaum

Wigan, A. L. (1844). The Duality of the Mind. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans

Wilson, F. (1991). Mill and Comte on the method of introspection. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 27, 107–29Google Scholar

Wyrsch, J. (1949). Die Person des Schizophrenen. Bern: Haupt

Wyrsch, J. (1956). Zur Geschichte und Deutung der endogenen Psychosen. Stuttgart: Thieme

Yolton, J. W. (1991). Locke and French Materialism. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this book is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.