What is phonology?

Phonology is the study of the sound features used in a language to communicate meaning. In English these features include phonemes, word stress, sentence stress and intonation.

Key concepts

Do you know what these symbols represent?

/dƷ/ /æ/ /ð/ /ɪ/

All these symbols represent phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can make a difference to meaning in a language. For example, the s in books in English shows that something is plural, so the sound /s/ has meaning and is a phoneme. Different languages use a different range of sounds and not all of them have meaning in other languages. For example, the distinction between /s/ and /sh/ is an important one in English, where it helps distinguish (notice or understand the difference between two things) between words such as so and show, sock and shock, sore and shore, etc. But in Cantonese, you can use either the /s/ or /sh/ sound in words without changing their meaning, i.e. in Cantonese these sounds are not two separate phonemes.

The phonemes of a language are represented in writing by phonemic symbols, such as /i:/, /aı/ and /§/. Each phonemic symbol represents only one phoneme, unlike the letters of the alphabet in English where, for example, the letter a in written English can represent the /æ/ sound in hat, the /eı/ sound in made and the /ə/ sound in usually.

What is reading?

Reading is one of the four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. It is a receptive skill, like listening. This means it involves responding to text, rather than producing it. Very simply we can say that reading involves making sense of written text. To do this we need to understand the language of the text at word level, sentence level or whole-text level. We also need to connect the message of the text to our knowledge of the world. Look at this sentence, for example:

The boy was surprised because the girl was much faster at running than he was.

To understand this sentence, we need to understand what the letters are, how the letters join together to make words, what the words mean and the grammar of the words and the sentence. But we also make sense of this sentence by knowing that, generally speaking, girls do not run as fast as boys. Our knowledge of the world helps us understand why the boy was surprised.

The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3

The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 is the second edition of The TKT Course. In this second edition you will find a range of new material that makes this edition different from the first edition:

• Revised and expanded information on the key concepts related to each area of the TKT syllabus

• An additional unit on ‘Approaches to language teaching’ reflecting the TKT syllabus

• New tasks in each unit for the Follow-up, Reflection, Discovery and exam practice sections

• New practice tests

• An expanded glossary reflecting the revised TKT Glossary

• A new section on ‘Tips for preparing for the TKT’, which aims to help you study by yourselves and make full use of all opportunities for working towards the TKT.

The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 Online

The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 is also available online. If you subscribe to the online version at cambridgetkt.english360.com you will get all the material from the print edition in an interactive format plus:

• Six additional interactive TKT practice tests, matching the latest Cambridge ESOL TKT computer-based tests

• ‘Ask the author’ videos giving an expert view on classroom issues focused on in the Reflection sections

• An interactive Glossary Quiz covering the TKT terms

• Extra support for TKT trainers.

What is the Teaching Knowledge Test (the TKT)?

The Teaching Knowledge Test (the TKT) is a test developed by Cambridge ESOL for teachers of English to speakers of other languages. It is designed to test candidates’ knowledge of concepts related to language and language use, and the background to and practice of language teaching and learning.

What are assessment types and tasks?

Assessment means judging learners' performance by collecting information about it. We assess learners for different reasons, using different methods to do so. Assessment tasks are the tasks we use for assessing learners. We can assess learners informally or formally. Informal assessment is when we observe learners to see how well they are doing something and then often give them comments on their performance. Formal assessment is when we assess learners through tests or exams and give their work a mark or a grade.

Key concepts

List all the reasons you can think of for assessing learners formally.

There are several reasons why we might want to assess learners formally:

1. 1 At the beginning of a course we might give them a test to find out (diagnose) what they know and don't know. This is called a diagnostic test. The information from this type of test helps us decide what to teach and which learners need help in which areas of language.

2. 2 When learners go to a language school or evening classes, the school may want to know what level the learners are at, so they give them a test. This is called a placement test. We use the information from a placement test to decide what level of class the learners should go into.

3. […]

What is writing?

Writing is one of the four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. Writing and speaking are productive skills. That means they involve producing language rather than receiving it, as in listening and reading. Very simply, we can say that writing involves communicating a message by making signs on a page. To write we need to have something to communicate, and usually someone to communicate it to. We also need to be able to form letters and words, to join these together to make sentences or a series of sentences that link together and to communicate our message in such a way as to get our message across. We will look at how we do this.

Key concepts

Make a list of what you have written in your language in the past week.

Maybe you haven't written anything in the past week! But perhaps you have written a shopping list, a postcard, a birthday card, some emails, your diary, some text messages, or maybe a story. If you are studying, perhaps you have written an essay. All of these are examples of written text types. You can see from this list that text types involve different kinds of writing, as each text type has different characteristics, e.g. single words only, short sentences or longer sentences; use or non-use of note form, addresses or paragraphs; different degrees of formality; different layouts; different ways of ordering information, i.e. structuring the text.

How do we consult reference resources?

Reference resources are all the sources of information about language and about teaching that we can refer to for help in lesson preparation. They include reference materials, such as dictionaries and grammar books, books and articles in teachers' magazines about language, supplementary materials in a coursebook such as phonemic charts or lists of irregular verbs, and websites on the internet. Reference resources may also include people, for example, the head of department or colleagues who teach foreign languages or other subjects. We consult reference resources by knowing where we can find the information we need and how to find it. There is a lot of information available to teachers and it is important, therefore, to develop the ability to compare reference resources and decide on their quality and usefulness.

Key concepts

There are many reasons for using reference resources. Think of at least three.

Checking the form and use of grammatical structures

Some grammar books are written for teachers and have very detailed explanations. Others, designed for learners at different levels, use simpler language to give essential information about grammatical structures. Grammar books for learners can help us to see what information our learners need about grammatical structures and can provide us with suitable ways of describing or explaining grammar. The easiest books to use are those organised in alphabetical order, or which have a detailed index or table of contents. Some grammar books also include practice exercises, which teachers (and learners) often find useful.