Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-p2v8j Total loading time: 0.001 Render date: 2024-05-22T12:39:38.283Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 50 - Rheumatologic Diseases and Strokes

from Section 6 - Systemic Disorders That Also Involve the Cerebrovascular System

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 June 2018

Louis Caplan
Affiliation:
Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center, Boston
José Biller
Affiliation:
Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine, Chicago
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, HP Jr. Cerebral vasculitis. Handb Clin Neurol. 2014;119:475–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Behrouz, R. The risk of ischemic stroke in major rheumatic disorders. J Neuroimmunol. 2014;277:15.Google Scholar
Jastrzebska, M, Czok, ME, Guzik, P. Autoimmune diseases, their pharmacological treatment and the cardiovascular system. Cardiol J. 2013;20:569–76.Google Scholar
Sanna, G, Bertolaccini, ML, Cuadrado, MJ, Khamashta, MA, Hughes, GRV. Central nervous system involvement in the antiphospholipid (Hughes) syndrome. Rheumatology. 2003;42:200–13.Google Scholar
Dafer, RM, Biller, J. Antiphospholipid syndrome: Role of antiphospholipid antibodies in neurology. Hematol Oncol Clin N Am. 2008;22:95105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyakis, S, Locksin, MD, Atsumi, T, et al. International consensus statement on an update of the classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:295306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, JH, Choi, CG, Choi, SJ, Lee, HK, Suh, DC. Primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: Neuroradiologic findings in 11 patients. Korean J Radiol. 2000;1:510.Google Scholar
Muscal, E, Brey, RL. Antiphospholipid syndrome and the brain in pediatric and adult patients. Lupus. 2010;19:406–11.Google Scholar
Levine, SR, Deegan, MJ, Futrell, N, Welch, KMA. Cerebrovascular and neurologic disease associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: 48 cases. Neurology. 1990;40:1181–9.Google Scholar
Rodrigues, CEM, Carvalho, JF, Shoenfeld, Y. Neurological manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome. Eur J Clin Invest. 2010;40:350–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomez-Puerta, JA, Cervera, R. Diagnosis and classification of the antiphospholipid syndrome. J Autoimmun. 2014;48–49:20–5.Google Scholar
Brey, RL. Antiphospholipid antibodies in young adults with stroke. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2005;20:105–12.Google Scholar
Tuhrim, S. Antiphospholipid antibodies and stroke. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2004;6:130–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brey, RL, Chapman, J, Levine, SR, et al. Stroke and the antiphospholipid syndrome: Consensus meeting Taormina 2002. Lupus. 2003;23:508–13.Google Scholar
Muscal, E, Brey, RL. Neurological manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome: Risk assessments and evidence-based medicine. Int J Clin Pract. 2007;61:1561–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruiz-Irastorza, G, Hunt, BJ, Khamashta, MA. A systematic review of secondary thromboprophylaxis in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;15:1487–95.Google Scholar
Mineo, C. Inhibition of nitric oxide and antiphospholipid antibody-mediated thrombosis. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2013;15(5):324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ortel, TL. The antiphospholipid syndrome: What are we really measuring? How do we measure it? And how do we treat it? J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2006;21:7983.Google Scholar
Jara, LJ, Medina, G, Vera-Lastra, O. Systemic antiphospholipid syndrome and atherosclerosis. Clinic Rev Allerg Immunol. 2007;32:172–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kluger, BM, Hughes, RL, Anderson, CA, Hassell, KL. Non-traumatic carotid dissection and stroke associated with anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome: Report of a case and review of the literature. Neurol India. 2008;56:77–8.Google Scholar
Merrill, JT. Antiphospholipid syndrome: What’s new in understanding antiphospholipid antibody-related stroke? Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2006;8:159–61.Google Scholar
Lee, JL, Naguwa, SM, Cheema, GS, Gershwin, ME. Revisiting Libman–Sacks endocarditis: A historical review and update. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2009;36:126–30.Google Scholar
Specker, C, Pernoik, A, Brauckmann, U, Siebler, M, Schneider, M. Detection of cerebral microemboli in APS: Introducing a novel investigation method and implications of analogies with carotid artery disease. Lupus. 1998;7 Suppl 2:S7580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, S, McCloud, M, Ortel, TL. Subdural hematoma and lupus anticoagulants. Stroke. 1997;28:646–8.Google Scholar
Carangelo, B, Peri, G, Signori, G, Palma, L. Chronic hemispheric subdural hematoma in a patient with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: Case report. J Neurosurg Sci. 2009;53:141–3.Google Scholar
Ruiz-Irastorza, G, Khamashta, MA, Hunt, BJ, Escudero, A, Cuadrado, MJ, Hughes, GR. Bleeding and recurrent thrombosis in definite antiphospholipid syndrome: Analysis of a series of 66 patients treated with oral anticoagulation to a target international normalized ratio of 3.5. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:1164–9.Google Scholar
Carecchio, M, Cantello, R, Comi, C. Revisiting the molecular mechanism of neurological manifestations in antiphospholipid syndrome: Beyond vascular damage. J Immunol Res. 2014;2014:239398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cervera, R, Boffa, MC, Khamashta, MA, Hughes, GR. The Euro-Phospholipid Project: Epidemiology of the antiphospholipid syndrome in Europe. Lupus. 2009;18:889–93.Google Scholar
Carhuapoma, JR, Mitsias, P, Levine, SR. Cerebral venous thrombosis and anticardiolipin antibodies. Stroke. 1997;28:2363–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gezer, S. Antiphospholipid syndrome. Dis Mon. 2003;49:691741.Google Scholar
Asherson, RA, Cervera, R, de Groot, PG, et al. Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: International consensus statement on classification criteria and treatment guidelines. Lupus. 2003;12:530534.Google Scholar
Bucciarelli, S, Cervera, R, Espinosa, G, et al. Mortality in the catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome: Causes of death and prognostic factors. Autoimmun Rev. 2006;6:72–5.Google Scholar
Erkan, D, Harrison, MJ, Levy, R, et al. Aspirin for primary thrombosis prevention in the antiphospholipid syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in asymptomatic antiphospholipid antibody-positive individuals. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:2382–91.Google Scholar
Ruiz-Irastorza, G, Cuadrado, MJ, Ruiz-Arruza, I, et al. Evidence-based recommendations for the prevention and long-term management of thrombosis in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients: Report of a Task Force at the 13th International Congress on Antiphospholipid Antibodies. Lupus. 2011;20:206–18.Google Scholar
Levine, SR, Brey, RL, Tilley, BC et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and subsequent thrombo-occlusive events in patients with ischemic stroke. JAMA. 2004;291:576–84.Google ScholarPubMed
Panichpisal, K, Rozner, E, Levine, SR. The management of stroke in antiphospholipid syndrome. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2012;14:99105.Google Scholar
Erkan, D, Vega, J, Ramon, G, Kozora, E, Lockshin, MD. A pilot open-label phase II trial of rituximab for non-criteria manifestations of antiphospholipid syndrome. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65:464–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuadrado, MJ. Treatment and monitoring of patients with antiphospholipid antibodies and thrombotic history (Hughes syndrome). Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2002;4:392–8.Google Scholar
Cohen, H, Machin, SJ. Antithrombotic treatment failures in antiphospholipid syndrome: The new anticoagulants? Lupus. 2010;19:486–91.Google Scholar
Peixoto, MV, de Carvalho, JF, Rodrigues, CE. Clinical, laboratory, and therapeutic analysis of 21 patients with neonatal thrombosis and antiphospholipid antibodies: A literature review. J Immunol Res. 2014;2014:672603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundstrom, E, Gustafsson, JT, Jonsen, A, et al. HLA-DRB*04/*13 alleles are associated with vascular disease and antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 2013;72:1018–25.Google Scholar
Hochberg, MC. Updating the American College of Rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus (letter). Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40:1725.Google Scholar
ACR Ad Hoc Committee on Neuropsychiatric Lupus Nomenclature. The American College of Rheumatology nomenclature and case definitions for neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:599608.Google Scholar
Van Dam, AP. Diagnosis and pathogenesis of CNS lupus. Rheumatol Int. 1991;11:111.Google Scholar
Sibbitt, WL Jr, Sibbitt, RR, Brooks, WM. Neuroimaging in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42:2026–38.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timlin, H, Petri, M. Transient ischemic attack and stroke in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2013;22:1251–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wierzbicki, AS. Lipids, cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2000;9:194201.Google Scholar
Jennekens, FG, Kater, L. The central nervous system in systemic lupus erythematous. Part 2. Pathogenetic mechanisms of clinical syndromes: A literature investigation. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2002;41:619–30.Google Scholar
Mitsias, P, Levine, SR. Large cerebral vessel occlusive disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology. 1994;44:385–93.Google Scholar
Wang, R, Xu, Y, Lv, R, Chen, J. Systemic lupus erythematosus associated with moyamoya syndrome: A case report and literature review. Lupus. 2013;22:629–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owada, T, Takahashi, K, Kita, Y. Subarachnoid hemorrhage in systemic lupus erythematosus in Japan: Two case reports and a review of the literature. Mod Rheumatol. 2009;19:573–80.Google Scholar
Nakai, Y, Hyodo, A, Yanaka, K, Akutsu, H, Nose, T. Distal superior cerebellar artery aneurysm in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus: Case report. Surg Neurol. 2000;54:73–6.Google Scholar
Laversuch, CJ, Brown, MM, Clifton, A, Bourke, BE. Cerebral venous thrombosis and acquired protein S deficiency: An uncommon cause of headache in systemic lupus erythematosus. Br J Rheumatol. 1995;34:572–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uthman, I, Khalil, I, Sawaya, R, Taher, A. Lupus anticoagulant, factor V Leiden, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene mutation in a lupus patient with cerebral venous thrombosis. Clin Rheumatol. 2004;23:362–3.Google Scholar
Alboudi, A, Sarathchandran, P, Alrukn, S, Al Madani, A. Cerebral venous thrombosis presenting with subdural haematoma as first presentation for systemic lupus erythematosus with negative antiphospholipid antibodies. BMJ Case Rep. 2014: doi: 10.1136/bcr-2014-205355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broussalis, E, Trinka, E, Kraus, J, McCoy, M, Killer, M. Treatment strategies for vasculitis that affects the nervous system. Drug Discov Today. 2013;18:818–35.Google Scholar
Yu, HH, Lee, JH, Wang, LC, Yang, YH, Chiang, BL. Neuropsychiatric manifestations in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus: A 20-year study. Lupus. 2006;15:651–7.Google Scholar
Levy, DM, Massicotte, MP, Harvey, E, Hebert, D, Silverman, ED. Thromboembolism in paediatric lupus patients. Lupus. 2003;12:741–6.Google Scholar
Saini, AG, Sankhyan, N, Bhattad, S, et al. CNS vasculitis and stroke in neonatal lupus erythematosus: A case report and review of literature. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2014;18:444–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shiboski, CH, Shiboski, SC, Seror, R, et al. 2016 American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism Classification Criteria for Primary Sjögren’s Syndrome: A consensus and data-driven methodology involving three international patient cohorts. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2017;69:3545.Google Scholar
Niemela, RA, Hakala, M. Primary Sjögren’s syndrome with severe central nervous system disease. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1999;29:413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Segal, B, Carpenter, A, Walk, D. Involvement of nervous system pathways in primary Sjögren’s syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin N Am. 2008;34:885906.Google Scholar
Simmons-O’Brien, E, Chen, S, Watson, R, et al. One hundred anti-Ro (SS-A) antibody positive patients: A 10-year follow-up. Medicine (Baltimore). 1995;74:109–30.Google Scholar
Ishizaka, S, Hayashi, K, Otsuka, M, et al. Syringomelia and arachnoid cysts associated with spinal arachnoiditis following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2012;52:686–90.Google Scholar
Marinos, G, Riley, J, Painter, DM, McCaughan, GW. Sulfasalazine-induced fulminant hepatic failure. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1992;14:132–5.Google Scholar
Urban, E, Jabbari, B, Robles, H. Concurrent cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and myeloradiculopathy in Sjögren’s syndrome. Neurology. 1994;44:554–6.Google Scholar
Delalande, S, de Seze, J, Fauchais, AL, et al. Neurologic manifestations in primary Sjögren syndrome: A study of 82 patients. Medicine (Baltimore). 2004;83:280–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saip, S, Skman-Demir, G, Siva, A. Neuro-Behçet syndrome. Handb Clin Neurol. 2014;121:1703–23.Google Scholar
International Study Group for Behçet’s Disease. Criteria for diagnosis of Behçet’s disease. Lancet. 1990;335:1078–80.Google Scholar
Siva, A, Saip, S. The spectrum of nervous system involvement in Behçet’s syndrome and its differential diagnosis. J Neurol. 2009;156:513–29.Google Scholar
Kikuchi, S, Niino, M, Shinpo, K, Terae, S, Tashiro, K. Intracranial hemorrhage in neuro-Behçet’s syndrome. Intern Med. 2002;41:692–5.Google Scholar
Kocak, A, Cayli, SR, Ates, O, Sarac, K. Middle cerebral artery aneurysm associated with Behçet’s disease. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2004;44:368–71.Google Scholar
Ho, CL, Deruytter, MJ. Manifestations of neuro-Behçet’s disease. Report of two cases and review of the literature. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2005;107:310–14.Google Scholar
Aguiar de Sousa, D, Mestre, T, Ferro, JM. Cerebral venous thrombosis in Behçet’s disease: A systematic review. J Neurol. 2011;258:719–27.Google Scholar
Iannetti, L, Zito, R, Bruschi, S, et al. Recent understanding on diagnosis and management of central nervous system vasculitis in children. Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:698327.Google Scholar
Zaiden, M, Mariotte, E, Galicier, L, et al. Vasculitic emergencies in the intensive care unit: A special focus on cryoglobulinemic vasculitis. Ann Intensive Care. 2012;2:31.Google Scholar
De Vita, S, Soldano, F, Isola, M, et al. Preliminary classification criteria for the cryoglobulinaemic vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70:1183–90.Google Scholar
Ghetie, D, Mehraban, N, Sibley, CH. Cold hard facts of cryoglobulinemia: Updates on clinical features and treatment advances. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2015;41:93108.Google Scholar
Mazzola, L, Antoine, JC, Camdessanche, JP, et al. Brain hemorrhage as a complication of type I cryoglobulinemia vasculopathy. J Neurol. 2003;250:1376–8.Google Scholar
Adinolfi, LE, Zampino, R, Restivo, L, et al. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection and atherosclerosis: Clinical impact and mechanisms. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20:3410–17.Google Scholar
Ramos-Casals, M, Robles, A, Brito-Zeron, P, et al. Life-threatening cryoglobulinemia: Clinical and immunological characterization of 29 cases. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2006;36:189–96.Google Scholar
Holle, JU, Gross, WL. Neurological involvement in Wegener’s granulomatosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2011;23:711.Google Scholar
American College of Rheumatology. 1990 Criteria for the classification of Wegener’s granulomatosis (now known as granulomatosis with polyangiitis). http://www.rheumatology.org/Practice-Quality/Clinical-Support/Criteria/ACR-Endorsed-Criteria. Accessed 28 November 2015.Google Scholar
de Leeuw, K, Sanders, JS, Stegeman, C, et al. Accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with Wegener’s granulomatosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64:753–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davison, R, Sheerin, NS. Granulomatosis with polyangiitis presenting as ischaemic stroke. JRSM Short Rep. 2012;3:81.Google Scholar
Nowack, R, Wachtler, P, Kunz, J, Rasmussen, N. Cranial nerve palsy in Wegener’s granulomatosis: Lessons from clinical cases. J Neurol. 2009;256:299304.Google Scholar
Nesher, G. The diagnosis and classification of giant cell arteritis. J Autoimmun. 2014;48–49:73–5.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, S, Flamm, SD, Tan, CD, Rodriguez, ER. Clinical diagnosis and management of large vessel vasculitis: Giant cell arteritis. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2014;16:498.Google Scholar
Ness, T, Bley, TA, Schmidt, WA, Lamprecht, P. The diagnosis and treatment of giant cell arteritis. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2013;110:376–85.Google Scholar
Weyand, CM, Goronzy, JJ. Giant-cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatic. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:50–7.Google Scholar
American College of Rheumatology. 1990 Criteria for the classification of giant cell (temporal) arteritis – excerpt. http://www.rheumatology.org/Practice-Quality/Clinical-Support/Criteria/ACR-Endorsed-Criteria. Accessed 28 November 2015.Google Scholar
Mollan, SP, Sharrack, N, Burdon, MA, Denniston, AK. Aspirin as adjunctive treatment for giant cell arteritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;8:CD010453.Google Scholar
Caylor, TL, Perkins, A. Recognition and management of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Am Fam Physician. 2013;88:676–84.Google Scholar
Smith, JH, Swanson, JW. Giant cell arteritis. Headache. 2014;54:1273–89.Google Scholar
Mahr, AD, Jover, JA, Spiera, RF, et al. Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: An individual patient data meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;86:2789–97.Google Scholar
Martinez-Taboada, VM, Lopez-Hoyos, M, Narvaez, J, Munoz-Cacho, P. Effect of antiplatelet/anticoagulant therapy on severe ischemic complications in patients with giant cell arteritis: A cumulative meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2014;13:788–94.Google Scholar
Gupta, V, Chinchure, SD, Goel, G, et al. Coil embolization of intracranial aneurysm in polyarteritis nodosa. A case report and review of the literature. Interv Neuroradiol. 2013;19:203–8.Google Scholar
American College of Rheumatology. 1990 Criteria for the Classification of polyarteritis nodosa. http://www.rheumatology.org/Practice-Quality/Clinical-Support/Criteria/ACR-Endorsed-Criteria. Accessed 28 November 2015.Google Scholar
Pagnoux, C, Seror, R, Henegar, C, et al. Clinical features and outcomes in 348 patients with polyarteritis nodosa: A systematic retrospective study of patients diagnosed between 1963 and 2005 and entered into the French Vasculitis Study Group Database. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:6116–26.Google Scholar
Reichart, MD, Bogousslavsky, J, Janzer, RC. Early lacunar strokes complicating polyarteritis nodosa: Thrombotic microangiopathy. Neurology. 2000;54:883–9.Google Scholar
Provenzale, JM, Allen, NB. Neuroradiologic findings in polyarteritis nodosa. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1996;17:1119–26.Google ScholarPubMed
Ford, RG, Siekert, RG. Central nervous system manifestations of periarteritis nodosa. Neurology. 1965;15:114–22.Google Scholar
Hajj-Ali, RA, Calabrese, LH. Diagnosis and classification of central nervous system vasculitis. J Autoimmun. 2014;48–49:149–52.Google Scholar
Calabrese, LH, Mallek, JA. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Report of 8 new cases, review of the literature, and proposal for diagnostic critera. Medicine (Baltimore). 1988;67:2039.Google Scholar
Birnbaum, J, Hellmann, DB. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Arch Neurol. 2009;66:704–9.Google Scholar
Berlit, P, Kraemer, M. Cerebral vasculitis in adults: What are the steps in order to establish the diagnosis? Red flags and pitfalls. Clin Exp Immunol. 2013;175:419–24.Google Scholar
Lucke, M, Hajj-Ali, RA. Advances in primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2014;16:533.Google Scholar
Suri, V, Kakkar, A, Sharma, MC, et al. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system: A study of histopathological patterns and review of the literature. Folia Neuropathol. 2014;52:187–96.Google Scholar
Merkel, PA, Koroshetz, WJ, Irizarry, MC, Cudkowicz, ME. Cocaine-associated cerebral vasculitis. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1995;25:172–83.Google Scholar
Hajj-Ali, RA, Calabrese, LH. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Autoimmunity Reviews. 2013;12:463–6.Google Scholar
Nogueras, C, Sala, M, Sasal, M, et al. Recurrent stroke as a manifestation of primary angiitis of the central nervous system in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Neurol. 2002;59:468–73.Google Scholar
Yasuda, Y, Matsuda, I, Kang, Y, Saiga, T, Kameyama, M. Isolated angiitis of the central nervous system first presenting as intracranial hemorrhage during cesarean section. Intern Med. 1993;32:745–8.Google Scholar
Biller, J, Loftus, CM, Moore, SA, et al. Isolated central nervous system angiitis first presenting as spontaneous intracranial hemorrhage. Neurosurgery. 1987;20:310–15.Google Scholar
Ozawa, T, Sasaki, O, Sorimachi, T, Tanaka, R. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system: Report of two cases and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1995;36:173–9.Google Scholar
Twilt, M, Benseler, SM. The spectrum of CNS vasculitis in children and adults. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2012;8:97107.Google Scholar
Gowdie, P, Twilt, M, Benseler, SM. Primary and secondary central nervous system vasculitis. J Child Neurol. 2012;27:1448–59.Google Scholar
Park, MS, Marlin, AE, Gaskill, SJ. Angiography-negative primary angiitis of the central nervous system in childhood. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;13:62–7.Google Scholar
Cellucci, T, Benseler, SM. Central nervous system vasculitis in children. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2010;22:590–7.Google Scholar
Pistracher, K, Gellner, V, Riegler, S, et al. Cerebral haemorrhage in the presence of primary childhood central nervous system vasculitis: A review. Childs Nerv Syst. 2012;28:1141–8.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, C, Elbers, J, Halliday, W, et al. Treatment of small vessel primary CNS vasculitis in children: An open-label cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9:1078–84.Google Scholar
Aletaha, D, Neogi, T, Silman, AJ, et al. 2010 Rheumatoid arthritis classification criteria: An American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:2569–81.Google Scholar
Meune, C, Touze, E, Trinquart, L, Allanore, Y. High risk of clinical cardiovascular events in rheumatoid arthritis: Levels of associations of myocardial infarction and stroke through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;103:253–61.Google Scholar
Kitas, GD, Gabriel, SE. Cardiovascular disease in rheumatoid arthritis: State of the art and future perspectives. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011;70:814.Google Scholar
Dhawan, SS, Quyyumi, AA. Rheumatoid arthritis and cardiovascular disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2008;10:128–33.Google Scholar
Ruyssen-Weitrand, A, Fautrel, B, Saraux, A, Loet, XL, Pham, T. Cardiovascular risk induced by low-dose corticosteroids in rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic literature review. Joint Bone Spine. 2011;78:2330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohno, T, Matsuda, I, Furukawa, H, Kanoh, T. Recovery from rheumatoid cerebral vasculitis by low-dose methotrexate. Internal Medicine. 1994;33:615–20.Google Scholar
De Carvalho, M, Swash, M. Neurologic complications of craniovertebral dislocation. Handb Clin Neurol. 2014;119:435–48.Google Scholar
Mills, JA, Michel, BA, Bloch, DA, et al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of Henoch-Schonlein purpura. Arthritis Rheum. 1990;33:1114–21.Google Scholar
Berube, MD, Blais, N, Lanthier, S. Neurologic manifestations of Henoch–Schönlein purpura. Handb Clin Neurol. 2014;120:1101–11.Google Scholar
van den Hoogen, F, Khanna, D, Fransen, J, et al. 2013 classification criteria for systemic sclerosis: An American College of Rheumatology/European League against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65:2737–47.Google Scholar
Amaral, TN, Peres, FA, Lapa, AT, Marques-Neto, JF, Appenzeller, S. Neurologic involvement in scleroderma: A systematic review. Semin Arthritis Rheumatism. 2013;43:335–47.Google Scholar
Das, CP, Rabhakar, S, Lal, V, Kharbanda, PS. Scleroderma, stroke, optic neuropathy: A rare association. Neurol India. 2002;50:504–7.Google Scholar
Smith, JA. Update on ankylosing spondylitis: Current concepts in pathogenesis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2015;15:489.Google Scholar
van Tubergen, A, Weber, U. Diagnosis and classification in spondyloarthritis: Identifying a chameleon. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2012;8:253–61.Google Scholar
van der Linden, S, Valkenburg, HA, Cats, A. Evaluation of diagnostic criteria for ankylosing spondylitis. A proposal for modification of the New York criteria. Arthritis Rheum. 1984;27:361–8.Google Scholar
Mathieu, S, Gossec, L, Dougados, M, Soubrier, M. Cardiovascular profile in ankylosing spondylitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2011;63:557–63.Google Scholar
Kaprove, RE, Little, AH, Graham, DC, Rosen, PS. Ankylosing spondylitis: Survival in men with and without radiotherapy. Arthritis Rheum. 1980;23:5761.Google Scholar
Dutra, LA, Braga-Neto, P, Pedroso, JL, Barsottini, OG. Sneddon’s syndrome: Case report and review of its relationship with antiphospholipid syndrome. Einstein (Sao Paulo). 2012;10:230–2.Google Scholar
Bolayir, E, Yilmaz, A, Kugu, N, Erdogan, H, Akyol, M, Akyuz, A. Sneddon’s syndrome: Clinical and laboratory analysis of 10 cases. Acta Med Okayama. 2004;58:5995.Google Scholar
Wu, S, Xu, Z, Liang, H. Sneddon’s syndrome: A comprehensive review of the literature. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2014;9:215.Google Scholar
Rebollo, M, Val, JF, Garijo, F, Quintana, F, Berciano, J. Livedo reticularis and cerebrovascular lesions (Sneddon’s syndrome). Clinical, radiological and pathological features in eight cases. Brain. 1983;106:965–79.Google Scholar
Wu, W, Chaer, RA. Nonarteriosclerotic vascular disease. Surg Clin North Am. 2013;93:833–75.Google Scholar
American College of Rheumatology. 1990 criteria for the classification of Takayasu arteritis. http://www.rheumatology.org/Practice-Quality/Clinical-Support/Criteria/ACR-Endorsed-Criteria. Accessed 28 November 2015.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, S, Flamm, SD, Tan, CD, Rodriguez, ER. Clinical diagnosis and management of large vessel vasculitis: Takayasu arteritis. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2014;16:499.Google Scholar
American College of Rheumatology. 1990 criteria for the classification of Churg-Strauss syndomre (traditional format), their sensitivity and specificity versus other defined vasculitis syndromes. http://www.rheumatology.org/Practice-Quality/Clinical-Support/Criteria/ACR-Endorsed-Criteria. Accessed 28 November 2015.Google Scholar
Burns, JC, Glode, MP. Kawasaki syndrome. Lancet. 2004;364:533–44.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, SR, Majumder, S, Chakraborty, PP, et al. Headache in a case of Rhupus syndrome. Headache. 2008;48:155–8.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×