1. For British slavery and abolition, see Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944); David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975); John R. Oldfield, Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery: The Mobilisation of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade, 1787–1807 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Philip Gould, Barbaric Traffic: Commerce and Antislavery in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Gelien Matthews, Caribbean Slave Revolts and the British Abolitionist Movement (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006); Seymour Drescher, Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Srividhya Swaminathan, Debating the Slave Trade: Rhetoric of British National Identity, 1759–1815 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009); Nicholas Draper, The Price of Emancipation: Slave-Ownership, Compensation, and British Society at the End of Slavery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Nicholas Draper et al., eds., Legacies of British Slave-Ownership: Colonial Slavery and the Formation of Victorian Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Andrea Major, Slavery, Abolition, and Empire in India, 1772–1843 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012); Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012); Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); Bronwen Everill, Not Made by Slaves: Ethical Capitalism in the Age of Abolition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020); Tom M. Devine, ed., Recovering Scotland’s Slavery Past: The Caribbean Connection (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015); Paula E. Dumas, Proslavery Britain: Fighting for Slavery in an Era of Abolition (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016); Padraic X. Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors: British Antislavery in Sierra Leone in the Age of Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017); Padraic X. Scanlan, Slave Empire: How Slavery Made Modern Britain (London: Robinson, 2020); Michael Taylor, The Interest: How the British Establishment Resisted the Abolition of Slavery (London: Bodley Head, 2020); Michael E. Jirik, ‘Beyond Clarkson: Cambridge, Black Abolitionists, and the British Anti-Slave Trade Campaign’, Slavery & Abolition 41 (2020), 748–771; and Simon Newman, Freedom Seekers: Escaping from Slavery in Restoration London (London: University of London Press, 2022). For enslavement and abolition in the United States, see, for example, Larry E. Tise, Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987); Joanne Pope Melish, Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and ‘Race’ in New England, 1780–1860 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998); Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); John Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men: Radical Abolitionists and the Transformation of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002); W. Caleb McDaniel, The Problem of Democracy in the Age of Slavery: Garrisonian Abolitionists and Transatlantic Reform (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013); Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016); Nicholas Guyatt, Bind Us Apart: How Enlightened Americans Invented Racial Segregation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016); Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017); David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom (London: Simon & Schuster, 2018); and Hannah-Rose Murray, Advocates of Freedom: African American Transatlantic Abolitionism in the British Isles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020).

2. The connections between Britain’s countryside and enslavement are discussed in Madge Dresser and Andrew Hann, eds., Slavery and the British Country House (Swindon: English Heritage, 2013); Corinne Fowler, Green Unpleasant Land: Creative Responses to Rural England’s Colonial Connections (Leeds: Peepal Tree Press, 2021); Corinne Fowler, Our Island Stories: Country Walks Through Colonial Britain (London: Penguin, 2024); Richard C. Maguire, Africans in East Anglia, 1467–1833 (Martlesham, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2021); and David Alston, Slaves and Highlanders: Silenced Histories of Scotland and the Caribbean (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2021). The European hinterland’s linkages to slavery are explored in Felix Brahm and Eve Rosenhaft, Slavery Hinterland: Transatlantic Slavery and Continental Europe, 1680–1850 (London: Boydell & Brewer, 2016); and Heike Raphael-Hernandez and Pia Wiegmink, ‘German Entanglements in Transatlantic Slavery: An Introduction’, Atlantic Studies 14 (2017), 419–435. For the many methodologies of Atlantic history, see Bernard Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concepts and Contours (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005); Alison Games, ‘Atlantic History: Definitions, Challenges, and Opportunities’, The American Historical Review 111 (June 2006), 741–757; and David Armitage, ‘The Atlantic World,’ in David Armitage, Alison Bashford, and Sujit Sivasundaram, eds., Oceanic Histories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 85–109.

3. Alan Taylor, ‘Foreword’, in Robert A. Gross, The Minutemen and Their World (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001, rev. ed.), xi (‘broader’); ‘Introduction’, in Lawrence Stone ed., The University in Society, Volume I: Oxford and Cambridge from the 14th to the Early 19th Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), v (‘conservatism’, ‘pressures’, and ‘external conditions’). For enslavement through a local and regional lens, see, for example, Randy J. Sparks, Where the Negroes Are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); Richard S. Dunn, A Tale of Two Plantations: Slave Life and Labor in Jamaica and Virginia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); and, more recently, Stephen Mullen, The Glasgow Sugar Aristocracy: Scotland and Caribbean Slavery, 1775–1838 (London: University of London Press, 2023).

4. Catherine Hall, Nicholas Draper, and Keith McClelland, ‘Introduction’, in Catherine Hall, Nicholas Draper, and Keith McClelland eds., Emancipation and the Remaking of the British Imperial World (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015), 2 (‘histories’ and ‘linked’). The significance of the empire in British metropolitan life is explored in Peter J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2015: Third Edition (London and New York: Routledge, 2016); Catharine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002); Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire, and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (London: Routledge, 2003); Tom M. Devine, Scotland’s Empire and the Shaping of America, 1600–1815 (London: Allen Lane, 2003); S. D. Smith, Slavery, Family, and Gentry Capitalism in the British Caribbean: The World of the Lascelles, 1648–1834 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); and Catherine Molineux, Faces of Perfect Ebony: Encountering Atlantic Slavery in Imperial Britain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).

5. J. A. Schumpeter, ‘The Crisis of the Tax State’, in Richard Swedberg ed. Joseph A. Schumpeter: The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 108. For the middling sort, see Jonathan Barry and C. W. Brooks, The Middling Sort of People: Culture, Society, and Politics in England, 1550–1800 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994); Margaret R. Hunt, The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680–1780 Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Maxine Berg, Luxury and Pleasure in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); and Hannah Barker, The Business of Women: Female Enterprise and Urban Development in Northern England, 1760–1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). For elites in the Atlantic world, see, for instance, H. V. Bowen, Elites, Enterprise and the Making of the British Overseas Empire, 1688–1775 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996).

6. The New Annual Register, or General Repository of History, Politics, and Literature, For the Year 1788 (London: J. and J. Robinson, 1789), 103 (‘1788’); Journals of the House of Commons. From January the 31st, 1792, In the Thirty-second Year of the Reign of King George the Third, to November the 15th, 1792, In the Thirty-third Year of the Reign of King George the Third (London: House of Commons, 1803), 542 (‘1792’). There are numerous histories of Cambridge University; see E. S. Leedham-Green, A Concise History of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Peter Searby, A History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III: 1750–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Victor Morgan and Christopher Brooke, A History of the University of Cambridge, Volume II: 1546–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); and R. R. Neild, The Financial History of Cambridge University (London: Thames River Press, 2012).

7. For institutional research into the legacies of enslavement at British universities, see, for example, Véronique Mottier et al., ‘Jesus College Legacy of Slavery Working Party: Interim Report (July-October 2019)’, www.jesus.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/inline/files/legacy_slavery_working_party_interim_report_27_nov_2019%20%283%29.pdf, accessed 4 April 2022; Martin Millett et al., ‘University of Cambridge Advisory Group on Legacies of Enslavement: Final Report’, www.cam.ac.uk/about-the-university/history/legacies-of-enslavement/advisory-group-on-legacies-of-enslavement-final-report, accessed 22 September 2022; Stephen Mullen and Simon Newman, Slavery, Abolition and the University of Glasgow: Report and Recommendations of University of Glasgow History of Slavery Steering Committee (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2018); and Cassandra Gooptar, University of Dundee Founders Project: Final Report (Dundee: University of Dundee, 2022). For enslavement at American universities, see, for instance, David Collins et al., eds., Report of the Working Group on Slavery, Memory, and Reconciliation to the President of Georgetown University (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 2016); Marcus L. Martin et al., eds., President’s Commission on Slavery and the University: Report to President Teresa A. Sullivan (Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 2018); Jody Allen et al., eds., The Lemon Project: A Journey of Reconciliation: Report of the First Eight Years (Williamsburg, VA: College of William and Mary, 2019); James Campbell et al., eds., Brown University’s Slavery and Justice Report with Commentary on Context and Impact (Providence, RI: Brown University, 2021); Tomiko Brown-Nagin et al., eds., Harvard & The Legacy of Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2022); Martha A. Sandweiss and Craig Hollander, ‘Princeton and Slavery: Holding the Center’, The Princeton & Slavery Project, https://slavery.princeton.edu/stories/princeton-and-slavery-holding-the-center, accessed 23 May 2022; and David Blight et al., Yale and Slavery: A History (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2024).

8. Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony & Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America’s Universities (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013), 11. For more recent treatments of universities and empire, see Richard Symonds, Oxford and Empire: The Last Lost Cause? (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); E. Kaye Tully and Clive Whitehead, ‘Audacious Beginnings: The Establishment of Universities in Australasia, 1850–1900’, Education Research and Perspectives 36 (2009), 1–44; Joseph Morgan Hodge and Brett M. Bennett, eds., Science and Empire: Knowledge and Networks of Science in the British Empire, 1800–1970 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011); Tamson Pietsch, Empire of Scholars: Universities, Networks and the British Academic World, 1850–1939 (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 2015); Caitlin Harvey, ‘Bricks and Mortar Boards: University-Building in the Settlement Empire, 1840–1920’ (PhD dissertation, Princeton University, 2021); and Caitlin Harvey, ‘Gold Rushes, Universities and Globalization, 1840–1910’, Past & Present 26 (November 2023), 118–157; For enslavement and the history of North American universities, see in particular Alfred L. Brophy, ‘The University and Its Slaves: Apology and Its Meaning’, in Mark Gibney et al. ed., The Age of Apology: Facing Up to the Past (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009); Alfred L. Brophy, University, Court, and Slave: Pro-slavery Thought in Southern Courts and Colleges and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Lindsey K. Walters, ‘Slavery and the American University: Discourses of Retrospective Justice at Harvard and Brown’, Slavery & Abolition 38 (2017), 719–744; and Leslie M. Harris et al., eds., Slavery and the University: Histories and Legacies (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2019). On the governmental seizure of Native American land to fund universities, see Robert Lee and Tristan Ahtone, ‘Land-Grab Universities’, High Country News 52 (April 2020), 32–45.

9. For the language of “direct” and “indirect” connections to enslavement, see Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 25; Major, Slavery, Abolition, and Empire, 233; Madge Dresser, Slavery Obscured: The Social History of the Slave Trade in an English Provincial Port (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016), 111; Pat Hudson, ‘Slavery, the Slave Trade and Economic Growth: A Contribution to the Debate’, in Hall et al., eds., Emancipation, 37 and 40; J. J. Wright, ‘“A work purely local?” Narratives of Empire in George Benn’s A History of the Town of Belfast’, in Daniel Sanjiv Roberts and Jonathan Jeffrey Wright, eds., Ireland’s Imperial Connections, 1775–1947 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 154; Melinda Elder, Slave Trade and the Economic Development of 18th-Century Lancaster (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2019), 75; Jessica Moody, The Persistence of Memory: Remembering Slavery in Liverpool, ‘slaving capital of the world’ (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2020), 191; Antoinette Burton, ‘New Narratives of Imperial Politics in the Nineteenth Century’, in Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose, eds., At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 214; Antoinette Burton, Empire in Question: Reading, Writing, and Teaching British Imperialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011), 259; and Kristin L. Gallas and James DeWolf Perry, ‘Comprehensive Content and Contested Historical Narratives’, in Kristin L. Gallas and James DeWolf Perry, eds., Interpreting Slavery at Museums and Historic Sites (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 4. For these terms in the United States, see Jennifer Oast, Institutional Slavery: Slaveholding Churches, Schools, Colleges, and Businesses in Virginia, 1680–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 131, 201, and 237.

10. Medieval Cambridge is discussed in Alan B. Cobban, The Medieval English Universities: Oxford and Cambridge to c. 1500 (London: Routledge, 1988); Damian Riehl Leader, ed., A History of the University of Cambridge, Volume 1: The University to 1546 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Part 2, English Universities, Student Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

11. Robert Anderson, British Universities: Past and Present (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006), 2 (‘legal rights’).

12. J. C. P. Roach, ed., The Victoria History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely: Volume 3, the City and University of Cambridge (London: Published for the University of London Institute of Historical Research by the Oxford University Press, 1959), 86–101 (‘rise to prominence’, ‘trade fairs’, and ‘population’); H. C. Darby, The Draining of the Fens: Second Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940), 53 (‘our river’); Rev. Edward Conybeare, Highways and Byways in Cambridge and Ely (London: Macmillan and Co., 1910), 164 (‘music booths’). See also Eric H. Ash, The Draining of the Fens: Projectors, Popular Politics, and State Building in Early Modern England (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 17–49.

13. Lilian M. Quiller Couch, ed., Reminiscences of Oxford by Oxford Men, 1559–1850 (Oxford: Oxford Historical Society at the Clarendon Press, 1892), 118 (‘present’ and ‘apprehension’); Edward Gibbon, The Autobiography and Correspondence of Edward Gibbon, The Historian: Reprint of the Original Edition (London: Alex Murray & Son, 1869), 25 (‘schools’). For early modern Cambridge, see John Gascoigne, Cambridge in the Age of the Enlightenment: Science, Religion and Politics from the Restoration to the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). The decline of “Oxbridge” admissions is examined in John Cannon, Aristocratic Century: The Peerage of Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); John Venn, ed., Biographical History of Gonville and Caius College, vol. 4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1897); Peter Linehan, ed., St John’s College, Cambridge: A History (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2011), 163–164; George Macaulay Trevelyan, Trinity College: An Historical Sketch (Cambridge: Trinity College, 1972), 73–74; and Stone, ed., The University in Society, Volume I, vii. The intellectual vibrancy of the ancient universities in the face of that decline in admissions is discussed in Nigel Aston, Enlightened Oxford: The University and the Cultural and Political Life of Eighteenth-Century Britain and Beyond (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023), esp. 15.

14. Wesley Frank Craven, The Virginia Company of London, 1606–1624 (Williamsburg, VA: 350th Anniversary Celebration Corporation, 1957), 1–14 and Lorena S. Walsh, Motives of Honor, Pleasure, & Profit: Plantation Management in the Colonial Chesapeake (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 29 (‘latitude’); Larry Gragg, Englishmen Transplanted: The English Colonization of Barbados, 1627–1660 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 31 (‘Courten’) and 1 (‘£285,000’). For the Virginia Company, see Jean de Chantal Kennedy, Isle of Devils: Bermuda under the Somers Island Company, 1609–1685 (London: William Collins Sons & Co Ltd., 1971); James Honor, A Land as God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America (New York: Basic Books, 2005); and Karen Ordahl Kupperman, The Jamestown Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009). The emergence of the plantation regime is explored in Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco & Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1986); Rachel N. Klein, Unification of a Slave State: The Rise of the Planter Class in the South Carolina Backcountry, 1760–1808 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713, foreword by Gary B. Nash (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Anthony S. Parent, Jr., Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave Society in Virginia, 1660–1740 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial America, 1619–1776 (Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005); Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003); Russell R. Menard, Sweet Negotiations: Sugar, Slavery, and Plantation Agriculture in Early Barbados (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006); Natalie Zacek, Settler Society in the English Leeward Islands, 1670–1776 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Michael Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014); Simon P. Newman, A New World of Labor: The Development of Plantation Slavery in the British Atlantic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016); Trevor Burnard, Planters, Merchants, and Slaves: Plantation Societies in British America, 1650–1820 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); Trevor Burnard and John Garrigus, The Plantation Machine: Atlantic Capitalism in French Saint-Domingue and British Jamaica (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016); Abigail L. Swingen, Competing Visions of Empire: Labor, Slavery, and the Origins of the British Atlantic Empire (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2015); Christopher Petley, White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018); and Randy M. Browne, The Driver’s Story: Labor and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2024).

15. Burnard, Planters, Merchants, and Slaves, 3–6. Enslavement in antiquity is discussed in Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985); Sandra R. Joshel, Slavery in the Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); and Peter Hunt, Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2018).

16. Burnard, Planters, Merchants, and Slaves, 18 (‘average’), 159 (‘three times’), and 169 (‘ninety’); Colin G. Calloway, The Indian World of George Washington: The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 7 (‘45,000’). For slaveholders and their accounting methods, see Caitlin Rosenthal, Accounting for Slavery: Masters and Management (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018).

17. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 170 (‘Wampanoag’); ‘Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates’, SlaveVoyages, www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates, accessed 24 February 2023 (‘12.5 million’). For the business of slave trading, see, for instance, David Hancock, Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the Atlantic Community, 1735–1785 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Nicholas Radburn, Traders in Men: Merchants and the Transformation of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2023); Nicholas Draper, ‘The City of London and Slavery: Evidence from the First Dock Companies, 1795–1800’, The Economic History Review 61 (May 2008), 432–466; Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007); Gregory E. O’Malley, Final Passages: The Intercolonial Slave Trade of British America, 1619–1807 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014); and Stephanie E. Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).

18. ‘Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates’, SlaveVoyages, www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates, accessed 24 February 2023 (‘186,286’); Richard B. Allen, ‘Satisfying the “Want for Labouring People”: European Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean, 1500–1850’, Journal of World History 21 (March 2010), 64 (‘10 and 13,000’). For the RAC and its successors, see K. G. Davies, The Royal African Company (London: Longmans, 1957); and William A Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt: The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1672–1752 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013). The East India Company is discussed in, amongst others, H. V. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756–1833 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Miles Ogborn, Indian Ink: Script and Print in the Making of the English East India Company (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Tillman W. Nechtman, Nabobs: Empire and Identity in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Philip J. Stern, The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Margot Finn and Kate Smith, eds., The East India Company at Home, 1757–1857 (London: UCL Press, 2018); Rupali Mishra, A Business of State: Commerce, Politics and the Birth of the East India Company (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); William Dalrymple, The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire (London: Bloomsbury, 2019); and David Veevers, The Origins of the British Empire in Asia, 1600–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020). For the East India Company and the Indian Ocean slave trade, see Frenise A. Logan, ‘The British East India Company and African Slavery in Benkulen, Sumatra, 1687–1792’, Journal of Negro History 41 (October 1956), 339–348; Major, Slavery, Abolition, and Empire; and Richard B. Allen, European Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean, 1500–1850 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014). For synthetic approaches to English and British colonial companies, see William A. Pettigrew and David Veevers, eds., The Corporation as a Protagonist in Global History, c. 1550–1750 (Leiden: Brill, 2018); and Philip J. Stern, Empire, Incorporated: The Corporations That Built British Colonialism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2023).

19. Advantages to Britain of the Negro trade, undated, Papers relating to the South Sea Company and crisis; states of the stock, minutes of the Court of Directors, notes of the meetings of the Bank and the Company 1711–1739, Cholmondeley (Houghton) Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Ch(H), Papers 88, 139 (‘Negro trade’); Daniel Defoe, A true account of the design, and advantages of the South-Sea trade; with answers to all the objections rais’d against it: a list of the commodities proper for that trade (London: John Morphew, 1711), 29–30 (‘marketed’); ‘Enslavers – Database’, SlaveVoyages, www.slavevoyages.org/past/enslavers, accessed 24 February 2023 (‘75,000’); Helen J. Paul, The South Sea Bubble: An Economic History of Its Origins and Consequences (London: Routledge, 2013), 56 (‘risk diversification’ and ‘lottery ticket’); A Proposal for the Enlarging and Establishing the Trade of Great Britain, Papers relating to the South Sea Company, Cholmondeley Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Ch(H), Paper 127, 2 (‘lessening’ and ‘Ingaging’); The particular Advantages that may arise to Great Britain by the Assiento for Negroes, ibid., Paper 139 (‘Advantages’ and ‘£455,000’); Richard S. Dale, Johnnie E. V. Johnson, and Leilei Tang, ‘Financial Markets can go Mad: Evidence of Irrational Behaviour during the South Sea Bubble’, Economic History Review 58 (2005), 236 (‘£1,050’). For the SSC as a popular investment strategy, see Julian Hoppit, ‘The Myths of the South Sea Bubble’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 12 (2002), 141–165; Donald L. Cherry, ‘The South Sea Company, 1711–1855’, Dalhousie Review 13 (1934), 61–68; John Carswell, The South Sea Bubble (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1960); Bruce G. Carruthers, City of Capital: Politics and Markets in the English Financial Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Richard Dale, The First Crash: Lessons from the South Sea Bubble (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); and Peter Temin and Hans-Joachim Voth, Prometheus Shackled: Goldsmith Banks and England’s Financial Revolution after 1700 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). For the SSC and the slave trade, see Victoria Gardner Sorsby, ‘British Trade with Spanish America under the Asiento, 1713–1740’ (PhD dissertation, University College, London, 1975); and Colin A. Palmer, Human Cargoes: The British Slave Trade to Spanish America, 1700–1739 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1981). The institutional ownership of South Sea securities at Cambridge is discussed in ‘King’s College Research into Slavery, Past and Present’, King’s College, University of Cambridge, www.kings.cam.ac.uk/news/2019/kings-college-research-slavery-past-and-present, accessed 11 April 2022; and Sabine Cadeau, ‘Bonds and Bondage: Financial Capitalism and the Legacies of Atlantic Slavery at the University of Cambridge’ unpublished manuscript, University of Cambridge, 2024.

20. Rediker, Slave Ship, 289 (‘suicide’); Jerome S. Handler, ‘The Middle Passage and the Material Culture of Captive Africans’, Slavery & Abolition 30 (2009), 8 (‘refreshment’ and ‘distributed’) and 11 (‘gaming’); Radburn, Traders in Men, 204 (‘efficiency’). The origins, nature, extent, and consequences of enslaved resistance in the Atlantic world is explored in Marjoleine Kars, Blood on the River: A Chronicle of Mutiny and Freedom on the Wild Coast (New York: The New Press, 2020); Sylviane A. Diouf, Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003); John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); James Sidbury, Ploughshares into Swords: Race, Rebellion, and Identity in Gabriel’s Virginia, 1730–1810 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Eric Robert Taylor, If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006); Stephanie M. H. Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Sally E. Hadden, Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Vincent Brown, Tacky’s Revolt: The Story of an Atlantic Slave War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020); Jill Lepore, New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery, and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005); and Jennifer L. Morgan, Labouring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).

21. Peter Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 82 (‘God’); Bartolomé de las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, ed. by Nigel Griffin and Anthony Pagden (London: Penguin, 2004) and Francisco Vittoria, On the American Indians, January 1539, in Anthony Pagden and Jeremy Lawrance, eds., Vittoria: Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) (‘denounced’); Edward Cavanagh, ‘Infidels in English Legal Thought: Conquest, Commerce and Slavery in the Common Law from Coke to Mansfield, 1603–1793’, Modern Intellectual History 16 (2019), 380 (‘Coke’); José Lingna Nafafé, Lourenço Da Silva Mendonça and the Black Atlantic Abolitionist Movement in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 43–44 (‘Vatican’); Erin Woodruff Stone, Slavery in the Early Modern Spanish Caribbean (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021), 142 (‘Domingo’). Spanish criticisms of Indigenous enslavement are discussed in Andres Resendez, The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), 13–16.

22. Timothy Cleaveland, ‘Ahmad Bab al-Timbukti and his Islamic Critique of Racial Slavery in the Maghrib’, The Journal of North African Studies 20 (January 2015), 42–64 (‘neither Muslims’); John Hunwick, ‘Islamic Law and Polemics over Race and Slavery in North and West Africa (16th–19th Century)’, in Shaun E. Marmon, ed., Slavery in the Islamic Middle East (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1999), 43–68 (‘religion’); Ehud R. Toledano, As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 47 (‘sociocultural’); David Brion Davis, ‘Looking at Slavery from Broader Perspectives’, The American Historical Review 105 (April 2000), 457 (‘successive’). For the Islamic debates over enslavement, see W. G. Clarence-Smith, Islam and the Abolition of Slavery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).

23. Daniel K. Richter, Before the Revolution: America’s Ancient Pasts (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011), 247 (‘DY’); O’Malley, Final Passages, 219 (‘Mark A’); Palmer, Human Cargoes, 69 (‘little palm’); Case Watkins, Palm Oil Diaspora: Afro-Brazilian Landscapes and Economies on Bahia’s Dendê Coast (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 64 (‘common’).

24. Trevor Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, & Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves in the Anglo-Jamaican World (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 31 (‘well-respected’) and 191 (‘starving’); 17 March 1777, St. George Tucker’s Journal to Charleston, W&M, Folder 12 (‘burnt’); Extracts from Anburey’s Travels through North America, in ‘Travellers’ Impressions of Slavery in America from 1750 to 1800’, The Journal of Negro History 1 (October 1916), 408 (‘white person’); 4 June 1774, Harold B. Gill, Jr. and George M. Curtis III, eds., A Man Apart: Journal of Nicholas Creswell, 1774–1781 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009), 12 (‘chained’); Vincent Brown, ‘Spiritual Terror and Sacred Authority in Jamaican Slave Society’, Slavery & Abolition 24 (2010), 26 (‘spectacular terror’).

25. Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughan, ‘Before Othello: Elizabethan Representations of Sub-Saharan Africans’, WMQ 54 (January 1997), 44 (‘unattractive’); Michael Neil, ed., William Shakespeare: Othello, the Moor of Venice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 233 (‘than black’), and 203 (‘ram’ and ‘the devil’); Anne MacVicar Grant, Memoirs of an American Lady. With Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America, as they Existed Previous to the Revolution (New York: George Dearborn, 1836), 44 (‘hapless’). For Christianity and anti-African racism, see Travis Glasson, ‘“Baptism doth not bestow Freedom”: Missionary Anglicanism, Slavery, and the Yorke-Talbot Opinion, 1701–30’, WMQ 67 (April 2010), 279–318; David M. Whitford, The Curse of Ham in the Early Modern Era: The Bible and Justifications for Slavery (London and New York: Routledge, 2009); Katharine Gerbner, Christian Slavery: Conversion and Race in the Protestant Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018); Colin Kidd, The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); and Rebecca Anne Goetz, The Baptism of Early Virginia: How Christianity Created Race (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).

26. Edward Long, The History of Jamaica. Or, General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of that Island: with Reflections on its Situation, Settlements, Inhabitants, Climate, Products, Commerce, Laws, and Government, vol. 2 (London: T. Lowndes, 1774), 401 (‘savage[s]’ and ‘tamed’); Pierre Joseph Laborie, The Coffee Planter of Saint Domingo; with An Appendix, Containing a View of the Constitution, Government, Laws, and State of that Colony, previous to the Year 1789 (London: T. Cadell, 1798), 158–159 (‘creature’ and ‘prolong’). For the origins and development of racial science, see Katy L. Chiles, Transformable Race: Surprising Metamorphoses in the Literature of Early America (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Raymond Phineas Stearns, Science in the British Colonies of America (Chicago and London: University of Illinois Press, 1970); Roxann Wheeler, Categories of Difference in Eighteenth-Century British Culture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000); Andrew S. Curran, The Anatomy of Blackness: Science & Slavery in an Age of Enlightenment (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011); Bruce R. Dain, A Hideous Monster of the Mind: American Race Theory in the Early Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002); Suman Seth, Difference and Disease: Medicine, Race, and the Eighteenth-Century British Empire (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Sharon Block, Colonial Complexions: Race and Bodies in Eighteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018); Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (New York: Nation Books, 2016); Rana A. Hogarth, Medicalizing Blackness: Making Racial Difference in the Atlantic World, 1780–1840 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812, intro. by Christopher Leslie Brown and Peter H. Wood (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); and Saliha Belmessous, Assimilation and Empire: Uniformity in French and British Colonies, 1541–1954 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

27. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African Written by Himself, intro. and ed. by Robert Reid-Pharr and Shelly Eversley (New York: Modern Library, 2004), 102 (‘meagre’ and ‘lump’); ‘Narrative of Charley Williams’, National Humanities Center, http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai/enslavement/text3/plantationchwilliams.pdf, accessed 24 February 2023 (‘Bells and horns’); ‘Bell Continues to Support an Honest Approach to the Legacies of Enslavement’, St Catharine’s College, Cambridge, www.caths.cam.ac.uk/slavery-exhibition, accessed 24 February 2023 (‘Catharina’); Bonnie Gordon, ‘What Mr. Jefferson Didn’t Hear’, in Olivia Bloechl et al., eds., Rethinking Difference in Musical Scholarship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 126 (‘Drums’).

28. Philip Morgan, ‘The Caribbean Environment to 1850’, in Philip Morgan et al., eds., Sea & Land: An Environmental History of the Caribbean (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 20–129 (‘devastating’); Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 313 (‘ghost acres’); Maxine Berg and Pat Hudson, Slavery, Capitalism and the Industrial Revolution (London: Polity Press, 2023), unpaginated e-book edition (‘formative’); Jennifer L. Anderson, Mahogany: The Cost of Luxury in Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 4 (‘Yoruba’); Receipted Bill for Tea, Coffee and Sugar for Bene’t Combination, 2–25 January 1749/50, Bursar’s and Other Financial Records, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC02/B/54/39 (‘sugar’); Bennitt Combination Bill, Quarter to Lady Day 1738, Bursar’s and Other Financial Records, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC02/B/51/3 (‘tobacco’); An Inventory then taken of the Goods of the late Dr Chapman, Master of Magdalene College Cambridge, Thomas Chapman Papers, MC, 27–33 (‘numerous’ and ‘Canisters’). For the impact of the plantation economy on the environment, see David Silkenat, Scars on the Land: An Environmental History of Slavery in the American South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), esp. 6–31. For slavery and the consumer economy, see Everill, Not Made by Slaves; Julie L. Holcomb, Moral Commerce: Quakers and the Transatlantic Boycott of the Slave Labor Economy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016); Anderson, Mahogany; Shane White and Graham White, ‘Slave Clothing and African-American Culture in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’, Past & Present 148 (August 1995), 149–186; Leland Ferguson, Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and Early African America, 1650–1800 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1992); Kay Dian Kriz, Slavery, Sugar, and the Culture of Refinement: Picturing the British West Indies, 1700–1840 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008); Ann Smart Martin, Buying into the World of Goods: Early Consumers in Backcountry Virginia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008); Kathleen M. Hilliard, Masters, Slaves, and Exchange: Power’s Purchase in the Old South (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); and Roderick A. McDonald, The Economy and Material Culture of Slavery: Goods and Chattels on the Sugar Plantations of Jamaica and Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Louisiana University Press, 1993). The impact of slavery on British economic growth is considered and debated in Williams, Capitalism and Slavery; Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England; David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987); Patrick K. O’Brien and Stanley L. Engerman, ‘Exports and the Growth of the British Economy from the Glorious Revolution to the Peace of Amiens’, in Barbara L. Solow, ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 177–209; Kenneth Morgan, Slavery, Atlantic Trade and the British Economy, 1660–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman, ‘The Importance of Slavery and the Slave Trade to Industrializing Britain’, Journal of Economic History 60 (March 2000), 123–144; C. K. Harley, ‘Slavery, the British Atlantic Economy and the Industrial Revolution’, in A. B. Leonard and David Pretel, ed., The Caribbean and the Atlantic World Economy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 161–183; and Klas Rönnbäck, ‘On the Economic Importance of the Slave Plantation Complex to the British Economy during the Eighteenth Century: A Value-Added Approach’, Journal of Global History 13 (2018), 309–327.

29. Robert G. Parkinson, The Common Cause: Creating Race and Nation in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 581 (‘fear’); Thomas Jefferson to George Rogers Clark, 25 December 1780, in Julian P. Boyd et al., eds., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 4 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), 237–238 (‘Empire of Liberty’). For slavery and abolition during the American Revolution, see, for example, Gary B. Nash, The Forgotten Fifth: African Americans and the Age of Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Alan Taylor, The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772–1832 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013); Chernoh M. Sesay, ‘The Revolutionary Black Roots of Slavery’s Abolition in Massachusetts’, The New England Quarterly 87 (March 2014), 99–131; Judith L. Van Buskirk, Standing in their Own Light: African American Patriots in the American Revolution (New York: Blackwell Publishing, 2017); Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Quest for Liberty (Boston: Beacon, 2006); David Waldstreicher, Slavery’s Constitution: From Revolution to Ratification (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009); Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Michael A. McDonnell, The Politics of War: Race, Class, and Conflict in Revolutionary Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); and Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991). For the Haitian Revolution and its aftermath, see, for instance, Julius S. Scott, The Common Wind: Afro-American Currents in the Age of the Haitian Revolution (London and New York: Verso Books, 2018); Sudhir Hazareesingh, Black Spartacus: The Epic Life of Toussaint Louverture (London: Penguin, 2020); Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005); and Johnhenry Gonzalez, Maroon Nation: A History of Revolutionary Haiti (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).

30. Anthony E. Kaye, ‘The Second Slavery: Modernity in the Nineteenth-Century South and the Atlantic World’, The Journal of Southern History 75 (August 2009), 628 (‘second’); Federal Writers Project, Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States From Interviews with Former Slaves, vol. 4, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1936), 175 (‘150’); Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup, a Citizen of New-York, Kidnapped in Washington City in 1841, and Rescued in 1853, from a Cotton Plantation near the Red River, in Louisiana, in Yuvan Taylor, ed., I Was Born a Slave: An Anthology of Classic Slave Narratives, vol. 2 (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1999), 238 (‘fatigued’); Henry Bibb, Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, in ibid., 60 (‘cotton they pick’). The cotton economy is discussed in Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A New History of Global Capitalism (London: Penguin Books, 2015); Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman, eds., Slavery’s Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016); Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800–1880 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Andrew J. Torget, Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery, and the Transformation of the Texas Borderlands, 1800–1850 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014); Daina Ramey Berry, The Price for Their Pound of Flesh: The Value of the Enslaved, from Womb to Grave, in the Building of a Nation (Boston: Beacon Press, 2017); Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 2013); and Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).

31. James Wiles to Ann Wiles, 9 April 1818, James Wiles letters in the Wiles Family correspondence and genealogical papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7721/1-19 (‘happy people’, ‘anxious’, and ‘rising price’).

32. Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 244–266 (‘1843’); Catherine Hall et al., ‘Introduction’, in Hall et al., eds., Legacies of British Slave-Ownership, 6 (‘£20 million’); Joseph Martin Mulhern, ‘After 1833: British Entanglement with Brazilian Slavery’ (PhD dissertation, University of Durham, 2018), 191–216 (‘merchants’); Marshall C. Eakin A British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John d’el Rey Mining Company and the Morro Velho Gold Mine, 1830–1960 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989), 172–173 (‘mining’); Kent Fedorowich, ‘The British Empire on the Move, 1760–1914’, in Sarah Stockwell, ed., The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2008), 63 (‘2.5 million’). For a more recent overview of the indentured labour trade, see Jonathan Connolly, Worthy of Freedom: Indenture and Free Labor in the Era of Emancipation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2024).

1. “The Cricketers,” National Portrait Gallery, https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_UK990702, accessed 8 September 2020. For the students and their backgrounds, see Darold D. Wax, ‘Robert Ellis, Philadelphia Merchant and Slave Trader’, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 88 (January 1964), 52; Tithable List of Ralph Wormeley, 25 May 1773, Wormeley Family Papers 1671–1944, VMHC; Gregory T. Massey, ‘Izard, Ralph’, South Carolina Encyclopedia, www.scencylopedia.org/sce/entries/izard-ralph/, accessed 18 November 2021; and Barbara Doyle, Beyond the Fields: Slavery and Middleton Place (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008), 21–30. Izard and Wormeley can be found in Trinity Hall’s accounting records. (College Accounts for 1760 and 1762, Master’s Books, 1664–1799, TH, GBR/1936/THAR/1/4/3.) For context on the Cricketers and its artist, see John Caldwell et al., eds., American Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, vol. 1 (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1994), 57; Daniel Kilbride, Being American in Europe, 1750–1860 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013); Carrie Rebora Barratt, ‘Inventing American Stories, 1765–1830’, in H. Barbara Weinberg and Carrie Rebora Barratt, eds., American Stories: Paintings of Everyday Life, 1765–1915 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2009), 3; and Julie Flavell, When London Was the Capital of America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 24.

2. The problems and pitfalls with using college matriculation records are discussed in Hester Jenkins and D. Caradog Jones, ‘Social Class of Cambridge University Alumni of the 18th and 19th Centuries’, The British Journal of Sociology 1 (June 1950), 93–116; and John Cannon, Aristocratic Century, 44–45. The Cambridge Alumni Database compiles the list of names in John Venn and John Archibald Venn, Alumni Cantabrigiensis: A Biographical List of all Known Students, Graduates and Holders of Office at the University of Cambridge, from the Earliest Times to 1900, 4 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922–27); and A. B. Emden’s A Biographical Register of the University of Cambridge to 1500 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963). For student connections to enslavement, see also David Pope, ‘The Wealth and Social Aspirations of Liverpool’s Slave Merchants of the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century’, in David Richardson et al. eds., Liverpool and Transatlantic Slavery (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), 164–226; and Hilary Perraton, A History of Foreign Students in Britain (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). This chapter has also benefited from discussions with Christopher Jeppesen, whose forthcoming work on Jesus College examines students with slaveholding, mercantile, and East Indian connections through to the end of the nineteenth century. For Trinity students and their family’s extensive ties to the North American and Caribbean slave economies, see Michael Banner, Britain’s Slavery Debt: Reparations Now! (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2024), 135–138.

3. Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), xiii (‘twenty-six’) and 26 (‘fewer’). See also Julie M. Flavell, ‘The “School for Modesty and Humility”: Colonial American Youth in London and Their Parents, 1755–1775’, HJ 42 (1999), 377–403. For the colonial American colleges and their social and intellectual environment, see J. David Hoeveler, Creating the American Mind: Intellect and Politics in the Colonial Colleges (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002).

4. Stuart Anderson, Pharmacy and the Professionalization of the British Empire, 1780–1970 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021), 104 (‘provisioning’); The Court of Directors of the South Sea Company, A List of the Names of Such Proprietors of Annuities, Transferable at the South Sea House, as were Entitled to Dividends on or Before the 5th July, 1837, and which Remained Unpaid on the 10th October 1842 (London: H. Teape and Son, 1842), 10 (‘Riddlesworth’); Thomas Nicholas, Annals and Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales: Containing a Record of all Ranks of the Gentry, their Lineage, Alliances, Appointments, Armorial Ensigns, and Residences, vol. 1 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1991), 392 (‘Lleweni’); ‘Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton, 5th Baronet’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/1170816936, accessed 13 January 2022 (‘Kitts and Nevis’); ‘Edward Gray’, ibid., www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/12855, accessed 13 January 2022 (‘Blaise’).

5. O’Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided, 26.

6. Mark Rothery and Henry French, ed., Making Men: The Formation of Elite Male Identities in England, c. 1660–1900 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 15 (‘polite’ and ‘inner’); Nathaniel Burwell to Lewis Burwell, 13 June 1718, ‘Letter of Col. Nathaniel Burwell’, WMQ 7 (July 1898), 44 (‘unfit’); Richard and Elizabeth Ambler to Edward Ambler, 1 August 1748, in Lucille Griffith, ed., ‘English Education for Virginia Youth: Some Eighteenth-Century Ambler Family Letters’, VMHB 69 (January 1961), 15 (‘common’, ‘lower’, and ‘preserve’). See also Carolyn D. Williams, Pope, Homer and Manliness: Some Aspects of Eighteenth-Century Classical Learning (London: Routledge, 1993); Henry French and Mark Rothery, ‘“Upon Your Entry into the World”: Masculine Values and the Threshold of Adulthood among Landed Elites in England 1680–1800’, Social History 33 (2008), 409–410; and Alexandra Shepard, ‘Student Masculinity in Early Modern Cambridge, 1560–1640’, in Barbara Krug-Richter and Ruth E. Mohrmann, eds., Frühneuzeitliche Universitätskulturen: Kulturhistorische Perspektiven auf die Hochschulen in Europa (Cologne: Böhlau, 2009), 53–74.

7. Alan Taylor, Thomas Jefferson’s Education (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2019), 14 (‘poor schooling’); ‘Carter Papers’, VMHB 6 (July 1898), 17 (‘bred’); ‘The Will of Charles Carter of Cleve’, VMHB 31 (December 1923), 40, n. 2 (‘perfect master’). Carter stipulated that the cost of his son’s education would be ‘born by my ex’tors and out of the interest of my Said son George’s Bank stock’. (‘Carter Papers’, 17.) For the Fuller family’s SSC investments, see John Fuller to John Lade, 25 July 1730, in David Crossley and Richard Saville, eds., The Fuller Letters: Guns, Slaves and Finance, 1728–1755 (Lewes: Sussex Record Society, 1991), 24; and John Fuller, Accountant’s Department: Old South Sea Company Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6455, 518. John Fuller held £4,202 of these securities in 1728. For his East India bonds, see John Fuller to Mr Serocold, 30 October 1736, in Crossley and Saville, eds., Fuller Letters, 93.

8. Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, 89 (‘Akan’); Kevin J. Hayes, The Library of William Byrd of Westover (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1997), 90 (‘smallpox’); Jane Tucker to St. George Tucker, 1 August 1816, St. George Tucker Papers, W&M, Box 35, Folder 7 (‘sea air’); Richard B. Sheridan, ‘Samuel Martin, Innovating Sugar Planter of Antigua 1750–1776’, Agricultural History 34 (July 1960), 129 (‘five editions’); Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slaves: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Jamaica: Canoe Press, 1994), 200–207 (‘Young’); Samuel Martin, An Essay Upon Plantership, Humbly Inscribed To his Excellency George Thomas, Esq.; Chief Governor of All the Leeward Islands, As a Monument to Antient Friendship (London: Samuel Jones, 1765), v (‘instruction’) and vii (‘captivated’ and ‘liberal’); Michal J. Rozbicki, ‘The Curse of Provincialism: Negative Perceptions of Colonial American Plantation Gentry’, The Journal of Southern History 63 (November 1997), 729–730 (‘crudeness’ and ‘de-anglicize[d]’). Martin was a South Sea investor, owning £1,000 of annuities in July 1729 and £2,900 by September 1733. (Samuel Martin, Old South Sea Company Annuities Legers, BE, AC27/6457, 541.) Martin is mentioned in Janet Schaw, Journal of a Lady of Quality: Being the Narrative of a Journey from Scotland to the West Indies, North Carolina, and Portugal, in the Years 1774 to 1776, ed. by Evangeline Walker Andrews and Charles McLean Andrews (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1921), 106. For Arthur Young, see Peter M. Jones, Agricultural Enlightenment: Knowledge, Technology, and Nature, 1750–1840 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 66.

9. Peter Peckard to James Beattie, 23 January 1789, Beattie Manuscripts, MC (‘chagrin’); Morgan Godwyn, The Negro’s & Indians advocate, suing for their admission to the church, or, A persuasive to the instructing and baptizing of the Negro’s and Indians in our plantations shewing that as the compliance therewith can prejudice no mans just interest, so the wilful neglecting and opposing of it, is not less than a manifest apostacy from the Christian faith (London: J. D., 1680), 13 (‘deity’ and ‘Profit’); Stephen Fuller to Benjamin Newton, 25 May 1756, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller (at Sussex, London, and elsewhere) relating mainly to estate matters, 1731–1757, SHC, DD/DN/8/1/1/55 (‘Mathematicians’); Robert Beverley Student Notebooks, 1787, Beverley Family Papers, VMHC, Mss1 B4678 a 4768[54] (‘algebra’); Robert Beverley notes on logic, 1787, Robert Beverley Papers, NYPL, MssCol 282 (‘logic’).

10. Peter Peckard, Piety, Benevolence, and Loyalty, recommended: A sermon preached before the University of Cambridge, January the 30th, 1784 (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon for J. & J. Merrill, 1784), 3 (‘fashionable’) and I (‘firm’ and ‘Natural’). The Corpus Christi College library accounts, for instance, do not show any major purchases of abolition material. In Michaelmas 1787, the College purchased Richard Chandler’s history of Greece, Clarendon’s state papers, and Sir David Dalrymple’s 1786 pamphlet on the propagation of Christianity, among other manuscripts. The tradition of purchasing histories, travel volumes, and legal texts continued throughout the late eighteenth century. (Expenses for Michaelmas 1787, Library Account, 1690–1818, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC07).

11. Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 404 (‘excluded’); Rebecca Zwick, Fair Game? The Use of Standardized Admissions Tests in Higher Education (New York: Routledge, 2002), ch. 1 (‘standardised’); Stephen Fuller to Colonel Orgyll, 15 April 1756, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller, 1731–1757, SHC, DD/DN/8/1/1/3 (‘superintendency’); John Norton to John Hatley Norton, London, 21 April 1770, in Frances Norton Mason, ed., John Norton & Sons, Merchants of London and Virginia: Being the Papers from Their Counting House for the Years 1750 to 1795 (Richmond, VA: Dietz Press, 1937), 132 (‘Cozin’ and ‘answer’).

12. John Witherspoon, Address to the Inhabitants of Jamaica, and other West-India Islands, In Behalf of the College of New-Jersey, 1772, in J. Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon, D. D. Sometime Minister of the Gospel at Paisley, and Late President of Princeton College, in New Jersey, vol. 3 (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), 309 (‘highest’, ‘activity’, and ‘opulence’); Philip V. Fithian to the Reverend Enoch Green, 1 December 1773, in Hunter Dickinson Farish, ed., Journal & Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, Incorporated, 1965), 26 (‘Boy’) and 27 (‘course’); Candid Remarks on Dr. Witherspoon’s Address To the Inhabitants of Jamaica, And the other West-India Islands, &c. In a Letter to those Gentlemen (Philadelphia, PA: William Goddard, 1772), 9 (‘numerous’ and ‘Person’). From the colonisation of Virginia in 1607 to the start of the American Civil War in 1861, eighty per cent of colleges failed. (Craig Steven Wilder, ‘“Sons from the Southward & Some from the West Indies”: The Academy and Slavery in the Revolutionary America’, in Harris et al., eds., Slavery and the University, 21–45.)

13. Kevin Joel Berland, ed., The Dividing Line Histories of William Byrd II of Westover (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 5 (‘Perceval’); William Byrd II to Sir Robert Southwell, 5 August 1701, William Byrd Papers, 1701–1745, VMHC, Mss2 B9964 b 3 (‘colebatch’, ‘distinction’, ‘din’d’, and ‘discoverys’); 31 July 1701, in Mark R. Wenger, ed., The English Travels of Sir John Percival and William Byrd II: The Percival Diary of 1701 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1989), 73–74 (‘Bentley’); Lee Ann Caldwell, ed., The Journal of the Earl of Egmont: Abstract of the Trustees Proceedings for Establishing the Colony of Georgia, 1732–1738 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2021), xviii (‘president’); Kathleen Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 332 (‘affairs’).

14. William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, 4 April 1728, Thomas Gooch Letters and Correspondence, GCC, PPC/GOO (‘Peace’); Stacy L. Lorenz, ‘“To Do Justice to His Majesty, the Merchant and the Planter”: Governor William Gooch and the Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730’, VMHB 108 (2000), 357 (‘secure’); William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, 20 July 1733, Gooch Letters, GCC, PPC/GOO (‘politicks’); William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, 28 October 1727, ibid. (‘Horses’, ‘boy’, and ‘Caius’). For Gooch, see also Dan M. Hockman, ‘William Dawson: Master and Second President of the College of William and Mary’, Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church 52 (September 1983), 199–214; Christopher Brooke, A History of Gonville and Caius College (Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 1996), 163–170; and Christopher Brooke, J. M. Horn, and N. L. Ramsay, ‘A Canon’s Residence in the Eighteenth Century: The Case of Thomas Gooch’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 39 (October 1988), 545–556.

15. William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, October 1732, Gooch Letters, GCC, PPC/GOO (‘inn’); William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, 12 June 1731, ibid. (‘young’ and ‘Colledge’); William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, 7 May 1733, ibid. (‘Son’, ‘University’, and ‘encourage’); William Gooch to Thomas Gooch, 5 July 1733, ibid. (‘Trinity Hall’, ‘dinner’, and ‘shew’). For enslaved people in the governor’s household, see Graham Hood, The Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg: A Cultural Study (Williamsburg, VA: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 254.

16. A. H. John, ‘The London Assurance Company and the Maritime Insurance Market of the Eighteenth Century’, Economica 25 (May 1958), 134 (‘Bosanquet’); ‘Mapps Estate’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/estate/view/441#:~:text=Samuel%20Mapp’s%20plantation%20was%20130,Hughes%2DQueree%20Index%20of%20Plantations.&text=In%201764%20Richard%20Smith%20of,the%20owner%20of%20Mapp’s%20plantation, accessed 18 January 2022 (‘Mapps’); Pope, ‘Wealth and Aspirations’, in Tibbles et al., eds., Liverpool, 179 (‘Buddicom’); Andrew Kippis, Biographica Britannica: Or, the Lives of the Most Eminent Persons, who Have Flourished in Great Britain and Ireland, from the Earliest Ages, Down to the Present Times, vol. 6 (London: Unknown, 1763), 3930 (‘correction’, ‘voyage’, and ‘sailor’); Madge Dresser, ‘Bristol and the Transatlantic Slave Trade’, Bristol Museum & Art Gallery, www.bristolmuseums.org.uk/stories/bristol-transatlantic-slave-trade/, accessed 4 July 2022 (‘20,000’). The Rev. Smith’s involvement in Mapps Estate is also mentioned in Charlotte Smith’s letter to William Tyler, 9 August 1801, in Charlotte Turner Smith and Judith Philipps Stanton, eds., The Collected Letters of Charlotte Smith (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003), 378.

17. Benefaction received by Mr Thomas Boughey, Merchant since the 22nd Decr. 1678, Library records: donors, c. 1680, WL, Add. MS a/106 (‘£100’); Articles and Orders of the Company of Adventurers to the Bahama Islands, 1672, Indenture for the Settlement of Lands, BL, Add MS 15640, f. 1 (‘Proprietors’); ‘Dr George Sandby’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146650797, accessed 26 November 2021 and Lease for 13 and a half years of Triall plantation, 1762 Church Mission Society Unofficial Papers, CRL, CMS/ACC81 T11 (‘Sandby’); ‘Hon. George Neville Grenville’, Legacies, wwwdepts-live.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/42697, accessed 26 November 2021 (‘£20,000’). Christopher Monck was also a founding investor in the Hudson’s Bay Company and was listed on their Royal Charter in May 1670. (Copy of the patent of Hudson’s Bay Company, 2 May 1670, The Patent of the Hudson’s Bay Company, BL, 2447.) The information on the various tutors at Cambridge has been compiled from ACAD and the Jamaican Family Research Library, which has digitised documents related to slavery in Jamaica.

18. ‘Walter Pollard’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=pollard&suro=w&fir=walter&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 7 July 2023 (‘Harrow’); John Pollard to Walter Pollard, 29 November 1772, Correspondence of Walter Pollard, 1771–1788, BL, Add MS 35655 (‘much disappointed’, ‘disapprobation’, ‘Tutor’, ‘large’, ‘Logick’, and ‘Essay’); John Pollard to Walter Pollard, 7 March 1773, ibid. (‘Experimental’ and ‘insufficiency’); John Pollard to Walter Pollard, 21 March 1773, ibid. (‘ever honoured’ and ‘considerable’); Rev. William Field, Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Opinions of the Rev. Samuel Parr, LL.D.; with Biographical Notices of Many of His Friends, Pupils, and Contemporaries, vol. 2 (London: Henry Colburn, 1828), 394 (‘ingenuous’ and ‘friendship’); Matthew Mulcahy, ‘Weathering the Storms: Hurricanes and Risk in the British Greater Caribbean’, The Business History Review 78 (Winter 2004), 659 (‘hurricane’ and ‘properties’).

19. Crossley and Saville, eds., Fuller Letters, xxiv (‘380’ and ‘plantations’) and x (‘income’ and ‘landholdings’); Geoffrey Plank, Atlantic Wars: From the Fifteenth Century to the Age of Revolution (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020), 92 (‘imperial’); Walter Thornbury, ed., The Life of J. M. W. Turner: Founded on Letters and Papers Furnished by His Friends and Fellow Academicians, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 47 (‘patrons’); Joseph Jekyll to Marguerite Gardiner, 1833, in R. R. Madden, ed., The Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of Blessington, vol. 3 (London: T. C. Newby, 1855), 183 (‘sponsors’). For imperial wars in the Caribbean, see Elena A. Schneider, The Occupation of Havana: War, Trade, and Slavery in the Atlantic World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018); and Brown, Tacky’s Revolt, ch. 1. At the Royal Institution, “Mad Jack” Fuller founded a Professorship of Chemistry and a gold medal prize for the same subject.

20. John Fuller to Dr Rose Fuller, 1 January 1741/2, in Crossley and Saville, eds., Fuller Letters, 413 (‘Chosen Fellow’); John Fuller, ‘Part of a letter from Mr. Stephen Fuller, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, to his father John Fuller, Esq; Senior, F. R. S. concerning a violent hurricane in Huntingtonshire, Sept. 8 1741. Communicated by Sir Hans Sloane, late Pr. R. S’, Philosophical Transactions 41 (December 1740), 851 (‘violent’); Stephen Whisson to Stephen Fuller, 19 March 1756, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller, 1731–1757, SHC, DD/DN/8/1/1/53 (‘offer’, ‘prospect’, and ‘pittances’); Stephen Fuller to Stephen Whisson, 25 May 1756, ibid. (‘defray’); Stephen Whisson to Stephen Fuller, 26 May 1756, ibid. (‘admitted’ and ‘entitle’). Fuller continued to be a member of the Royal Society into the 1760s. (11 June 1761, Journal Books of the Royal Society, Volume 25, RS, JBO/25/119.)

21. Venn, ed., Biographical History, vol. 1, xxiii.

22. Trevelyan, Trinity College, 71 (‘silver’); Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 4 (‘lax’); Remarks on the Enormous Expence in the Education of Young Men in the University of Cambridge; with a Plan for the Better Regulation of the Discipline of that University (London: C. Stalker, 1788), 2 (‘Concern’). Henry Pennant, who matriculated at Queens’ College in 1732 and became a fellow-commoner two years later in December 1734, provided a set of four sauce tureens of neo-classical form. Two of these were engraved ‘Coll: Regin: dederunt Henricus Pennant ex Insula Jamaica et Johan: Peploe Mosdey Arm: Soc: commensalis ann: 1736 & 1788’. (‘Silverware, 1750–99’, Queens’ College, University of Cambridge, www.queens.cam.ac.uk/visiting-the-college/history/college-facts/silverware/silverware-1750-99, accessed 30 April 2020.)

23. Roach, ed., Victoria History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely, 235–265 (‘tuition’); Accounts of Rose Fuller at Cambridge, Leiden, and Paris, 1728–32, Books, Plans, and Account Books of the Fuller Family, ES, SAS/RF/15/27 (‘spent’); Charles Davenant, Discourses on the Public Revenues and on the Trade of England, vol. 2 (London: James Knapton, 1698), 96 (‘rich’); Some Considerations humbly offered to both Houses of Parliament, Concerning the Sugar Colonies, and Chiefly the Island of Barbadoes (London: A. Baldwin, 1701), 4 (‘50,000’).

24. Stephen Fuller to Dr Aikenhead, April 1758, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller, 1731–1757, SHC, DD/DN/8/1/16/13 (‘200’); Denis Arthur Winstanley, Unreformed Cambridge: A Study of Certain Aspects of the University in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 209 (‘lavish’); Peter Edwards, Horse and Man in Early Modern England (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007), 116 (‘integral’); Anthony Hinton to Rose Fuller, 12 October 1756, Papers of Rose Fuller, ES, SAS/RF/19/34 (‘Races’, ‘cloaths’, and ‘me’); Stephen Fuller to Dr Gilbert Parker, 18 June 1766, Stephen Fuller Letterbooks in the Williams Ethnological Collection, JJBL, MS.2009.030 (‘Ascot’); Thomas Katheder, The Baylors of Newmarket: The Decline and Fall of a Virginia Planter Family (New York: Bloomington, 2009), 1–2 (‘honour’). For horse racing as a pastime in the southern colonies and states, see T. H. Breen, ‘Horses and Gentlemen: The Cultural Significance of Gambling among the Gentry of Virginia’, WMQ 34 (April 1977), 239–257; Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 119; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics & Behavior in the Old South (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); and Katherine C. Mooney, Race Horse Men: How Slavery and Freedom Were Made at the Racetrack (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).

25. Richard Roderick, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6459, 220 (‘annuities’); ‘Richard Roderick’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=RDBK728R&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 9 May 2022 (‘fellow at Magdalene’); John Mandevile (or Mandeville), Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6446, 67 (‘Corpus’); Zachary Pearce, Epistolæ Duæ ad Celeberrimum Doctissimumque Virum F—V—Professorem Amestelodamensem Scriptæ (London: Francis Clay, 1721), 2 (‘thirst’, ‘educated’, and ‘desire’); Richard Monins, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6446, 541 (‘Monins’); Richard Loving of Trinity College, Cambridge, Transfer Book for the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading with Africa, 9 January 1722 to 3 October 1723, TNA, T70/206, 111 (‘Loving’); Dr. Richard Bentley, ‘Angustam Amice Pauperiem Pati’, 1722, in Charles Whibley, ed., In Cap and Gown: Three Centuries of Cambridge Wit (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co., 1889), 17 (‘rich’); Richard Bentley, D. D., Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6437, 402 (‘stock’); ‘Past Fellows’, The Royal Society, https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA8038, accessed 2 February 2024 (‘lost’ and ‘South Seas’). The South Sea Company’s stock ledgers do not survive, but historians can determine the stock holdings of many earlier investors because the account books mention “By Joynt Stock SSA” if that person held these securities before the government divided South Sea stockholdings evenly into annuities and stock to ensure the Company’s survival after the Bubble. Put simply, if someone owned £100 in stock in 1720, the government-enforced division of these assets in 1723 meant that someone ended up with £50 in annuities and £50 trading capital. For a helpful explanation of these source material issues, see Andrew Odlyzko, ‘Newton’s Financial Misadventures in the South Sea Bubble’, Royal Society Journal of the History of Science 73 (2019), 29–59; and Ellen T. Harris, ‘“Master of the Orchester with a Salary”: Handel at the Bank of England’, Music & Letters 101 (February 2020), 1–29.

26. Frances Walker Baylor to John Baylor, May 25 1770, George Daniel Baylor Papers, 1743–1964, VMHC, Mss1 B3445 d 9 (‘hams’); John Fuller to Rose Fuller, 21 November 1759, Papers of Rose Fuller, ES, SAS/RF/19/171 (‘boarding’ and ‘Confidence’).

27. Accounts of John Fuller, ibid., 189/1–2 (‘seventy pounds’ and ‘services’); J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge under Queen Anne: Illustrated by Memoir of Ambrose Bonwicke and Diaries of Francis Burman and Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell & Co., 1911), 132 (‘professors’ and ‘pipe’); Christopher Wordsworth, Social Life at the English Universities in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1874), 373 (‘traded news’). For coffeehouse culture in Britain, see Brian Cowan, The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).

28. ‘Emmanuel College’, An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in the City of Cambridge (London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1959) (‘earned’); ‘Burch Hothersall’, Emmanuel College Paintings, www.emma.cam.ac.uk/about/history/paintings/index.cfm, accessed 20 February 2021 (‘donated’); ‘Church and Organ Music’, The Musical Times 49 (October 1908), 649 (‘Joice’); ‘William Long’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=long&suro=w&fir=william&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 17 March 2021 (‘Long’); Greg Dening, The Death of William Gooch: A History’s Anthropology (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1995), 97 (‘two hundred’); Mr Byam’s Legacies, Wills, 1800–1914, KCA, GBR/0272/KCHR/3/1/8, 76 (‘£200’); Gavin Stamp, ‘George Gilbert Scott, Jun., and King’s College Chapel’, Architectural History 37 (1994), 160 (‘erecting’). The fire gutted the southern range of the Front Court at Emmanuel College.

29. Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 69 (‘Gentlemen’); Wordsworth, Social Life at the English Universities, 109 (‘entitled’); 25 October 1786, Master/Registry Gesta, 1784–1811, GCC, GC/GOV/03/01/07 (‘plate’); Dr William Savage to the Master of Caius College, 15 December 1724, Papers concerning foundation and fellowships; and papers relating to the Mastership of Sir John Ellys, GCC, GC/MAS/01/01/01 (‘Lustre’ and ‘proper’).

30. Wordsworth, Social Life at the English Universities, 98 (‘pensioner’); Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 142–143 (‘sizars’); Roach, ed., Victoria History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely: Volume 3, 255–265 (‘reformed’); Cannon, Aristocratic Century, 55 (‘servants’); Venn and Venn, Alumni Cantabrigiensis, vol. 1, 399 (‘Holt’).

31. Edmund Berkeley, Jr., ‘Carter, Robert (ca. 1664–1732)’, in Sara B. Bearss, ed., The Dictionary of Virginia Biography, vol. 3 (Richmond: Library of Virginia, 2006), 84–86 (‘owned’); Walsh, Motives of Honor, 240 (‘Fairfield’); Festo Annunc. 1729 to Festum Mich. 1729, College Bursar Book, GCC, GC/BUR/F/88 (‘appears’); Robert Carter to Lewis Burwell, 22 August 1727, Robert Carter Letterbook, 1701–1732, microfilm, VMHC (‘Scholar’); Robert Carter to Lewis Burwell, 26 June 1729, ibid. (‘Qualitys’); Robert Carter to Lewis Burwell, 12 August 1731, ibid. (‘fairly’); Robert Carter to William Dawkins, 11 July 1732, ibid. (‘denied’); Robert Carter to Micajah Perry, 11 July 1732, ibid. (‘Effects’); William Hamilton Bryson, ed., ‘A Letter of Lewis Burwell to James Burrough, July 8, 1734’, VMHB 81 (1973), 409 (‘Burrough’) and 414 (‘Master’); Robert Simpson, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6459, 719 (‘investor’).

32. Dr Henry Godolphin, List of Holders of East India Company Stock, 16 April 1694, Stocks and Bonds of the East India Company, BL, IOR/H/2, 10 (‘EIC’); Dr Henry Godolphin, Dean of St. Pauls, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6442, 405 (‘South Sea’); H. C. Maxwell Lyte, A History of Eton College, 1440–1875 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1875), 284 (‘own cost’).

33. Ralph Izard to William Drayton, 26 October 1777, in Anne Izard Deas, ed., Correspondence of Mr. Ralph Izard, of South Carolina, From the Year 1774 to 1804; with a Short Memoir (New York: Charles S. Francis & Co., 1844), 368 (‘good character’, ‘proper’, and ‘residence’); Petley, White Fury, 26 (‘Eton’); Jonathan H. Poston, ‘Ralph Wormeley V of Rosegill: A deposed Virginia aristocrat, 1774–1781’ (MA Thesis, College of William and Mary, 1979), 15 (‘friends’ and ‘companions’). There was a sixfold increase in the number of Caribbean enslaver children attending Eton. After leaving, these students remembered their time at school fondly. Eton received donations of books and prints from Anthony Morris Stoner, and several portraits from students remain at the College. (O’Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided, 20–21.) See also Sol Gamsu et al., ‘Elite Schools and Slavery in the UK – Capital, Violence and Extractivism’, Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 45 (2024), 325–345.

34. Christopher Reid, ‘Whig Declamation and Rhetorical Freedom at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1770–1805’, The Review of English Studies 64 (September 2013), 630 (‘prestigious’); R. G. Thorne, ed., The History of Parliament: The House of Commons, 1790–1820, vol. 1 (London: Haynes Publishing, 1986), 293 (‘peers’); ‘Rt. Hon. Henry Goulburn’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/21529, accessed 30 November 2021 (‘Goulburn’). In May 1831, Goulburn became the MP for Cambridge University, a seat which he held until his death in January 1856. See Brian Jenkins, Henry Goulburn, 1784–1856: A Political Biography (Montreal and London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1996), 173–174.

35. ‘John Downman’, National Portrait Gallery, www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp06903/john-downman, accessed 10 November 2021 (‘Downman’); J. H. P., ‘The Gorsuch and Lovelace Families (Continued)’, VMHB 25 (July 1917), 316 (‘mortarboard’); ‘Ralph Wormeley V (1745–1806)’, Colonial Virginia Portraits, https://colonialvirginiaportraits.org/portrait/ralph-wormeley-v-1745-1806-2/, accessed 9 September 2020 (‘Trinity Hall’); ‘John Carter’, Encyclopedia Virginia, https://encyclopediavirginia.org/11631-6eb94a2f744480e/, accessed 9 September 2020 (‘posed’); Sir Godfrey Kneller, Transfer Book, May-June 1720, TNA, T70/199/1, 40 (‘investor’). Kneller held £1,000 in Royal African stock. Downman studied under Benjamin West and painted in Cambridge after a residence in Italy from 1773 to 1775. Though associated with Napoleon, the hand-in-waistcoat pose was popular in eighteenth-century England. See Arline Meyer, ‘Re-dressing Classical Statuary: The Eighteenth-Century “Hand-in-Waistcoat” Portrait’, The Art Bulletin 77 (March 1995), 45–63.

36. ‘Charles Crawford, “Earl of Crawford and Lindsay”’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146639287, accessed 7 April 2022 (‘son’); ‘Alexander Crawford of Antigua and Devonshire Street’, ibid., www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146659687, accessed 7 April 2022 (‘brother’); Winstanley, Unreformed Cambridge, 219 (‘drunk’).

37. Ibid., 220 (‘take’, ‘self-preservation’, and ‘touch’); The Scots Magazine, 1773 (‘West-Indians’, ‘discreet’, ‘expensive’, and ‘colder’); Lewis Leary, ‘Charles Crawford: A Forgotten Poet of Early Philadelphia’, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History of Biography 83 (July 1959), 294 (‘abolitionist’); ‘To the Printer’, The Public Advertiser, 21 October 1773 (‘Slave-Drivers’). For enslaver violence on campuses in the United States, see Jennifer Bridges Oast, ‘Negotiating the Honor Culture: Students and Slaves at Three Virginia Colleges’, in Harris et al., eds., Slavery and the University, 84–98; and Maurie D. McInnis, ‘Violence’, in. Maurie D. McInnis and Louis P. Nelson, eds., Educated in Tyranny: Slavery at Thomas Jefferson’s University (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2019), unpaginated e-book edition.

38. Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain, 1780–1830 (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 20 (‘10 to 15,000’); Vincent Caretta, ed., Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World of the 18th Century (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004), 399 (‘Born’); ‘An Act to Prevent Slaves being Evidence against John Williams, a Free Negro’, in Acts of the Assembly, Passed in the island of Jamaica, from 1681, to 1737, inclusive (London: John Baskett, 1789), 119 (‘customs’); Caretta, Unchained Voices, 398–399 (‘experiment’) and 400–401 (‘records’ and ‘member’); David Hume, ‘Of National Characters’, David Hume, Essays Moral, Political and Literary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), 213 (‘man of parts’); Gentleman’s Magazine, 1771, 595–596 (‘dressed’ and ‘rejected’). These figures were subject to sensationalist debate – further highlighting white fears about Black immigration. In 1764, the Gentleman’s Magazine claimed that there were ‘20,000 Negroe servants’ in Britain, and, in 1772, Lord Mansfield, deciding whether James Somerset was to be freed, estimated that there were 15,000 African-descended people residing in the country.

39. Baptism of a ‘Negro Christian in the house, the weather being extremely cold’, 4 February 1710, Registers and Service of the Gamlingay Parish Church, CA KP76/1/1 (‘Negro Christian’); ‘A Black Servant’, Cambridge Chronicle and Journal, 2 December 1797 (‘Lady’ and ‘Jamaica’); ‘Deaths’, The Royal Gazette (Jamaica), 6 April 1793 (‘Westmoreland’); ‘Advertisements’, Cambridge Chronicle and Journal, 5 August 1848 (‘servant’); Chris Lloyd, ‘The Richmond slave given his freedom after saving life of gamekeeper during moor’s fire’, 14 November 2019, The Northern Echo, www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/history/18036868.richmond-slave-given-freedom-saving-life-gamekeeper-moors-fire/, accessed 15 October 2021 (‘Fish River’ and ‘Barker’); Venn and Venn, Alumni Cantabrigiensis, vol. 1, 442 (‘alumnus’); Baptism of John Yorke, 1776, Copies of Entries of Marske Parish Register, NYCRO, ZAZ/70/22/24 (‘catechism’); ‘Timothy Hutton’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=hutton&suro=w&fir=timothy&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 15 October 2021 (‘donated’). Charles Ignatius Sancho was featured in a painting of Lady Mary Churchill, Duchess of Montagu, and Caesar Shaw, an enslaved African man in the employment of the Spencer family, was featured in two portraits of John Spencer. (Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain [London: Pluto Press, 1984], 72–73.)

40. Venn and Venn, Alumni Cantabrigiensis, vol. 2, 158 (‘matriculated’); James A. Rawley, ‘Henry Laurens and the Atlantic Slave Trade’, in James A. Rawley ed., London: Metropolis of the Slave Trade (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003), 82–97 (‘8,000’); Flavell, London, 43–44 (‘Scipio’); Henry Laurens to John Paul Grimké, 3 October 1772, in Philip M. Harmer et al., eds., The Papers of Henry Laurens, vol. 8 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1980), 489 (‘genteel’ and ‘preparative’).

41. ‘Hon. Samuel Alpress’, Legacies www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146650011, accessed 30 November 2021 (‘father’); George Alpress’s Letter of Introduction to Jesus College, 19 July 1754, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller, 1731–1757, SHC, DD/DN/8/1/1 (‘expended’ and ‘qualify’); Stephen Fuller to Benjamin Newton, 25 May 1756, ibid. (‘intended’).

42. Samuel Alpress to Stephen Fuller, 19 January 1757, ibid. (‘Fence’); Samuel Alpress to Stephen Fuller, 26 January 1758, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller (at Sussex and London) relating mainly to estate and business matters (including Jamaica), 1758–1762, SHC, 18 (‘Estates’, ‘Circle’, and ‘Credit’).

43. William Hawes to Stephen Fuller, 20 February 1757, Papers of Stephen Fuller, ES, DD/DN/503 (‘Misfortune’ and ‘Expence’); Samuel Alpress to Stephen Fuller, 29 October 1758, Correspondence received by Stephen Fuller, 1758–1762, SHC, DD/DN/8/1/18 (‘Curacy’ and ‘best living’).

44. Samuel Alpress to Stephen Fuller, 13 February 1759, ibid. (‘oblig’d’); Benjamin Newton to Stephen Fuller, 25 May 1759, ibid. (‘frollick’); Benjamin Newton to Stephen Fuller, 28 May 1759, ibid. (‘suffering’); Samuel Alpress to Stephen Fuller, 14 June 1759, ibid. (‘Friends’).

45. Robert Carter Nicholas to John Norton, 30 November 1772, in Mason, ed., John Norton & Sons, 285 (‘Foundation’); William Nelson to John Norton, 27 February 1768, in ibid. (‘Temptations’); 23 February 1770, in ‘Extracts from Diary of Col. Landon Carter’, WMQ 13 (July 1904), 47 (‘priggishness’). In 1785, one parent forbade their children from associating with the Virginia gentry, many of whom had English educations, ‘lest they should imbibe more exalted notions of their own importance than I could wish any child of mine to possess’. (Will of Thompson Mason, 1785, in Kate M. Rowland, ed., Life of George Mason, 1725–1792, vol. 2 [New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892], 77.)

46. South Carolina Gazette and American General Advertiser, 20 November 1769 (‘Patriotick’ and ‘True’); Hugh Swinton Legaré, ‘On Classical Learning’, in Mary Legaré, ed., Writings of Hugh Swinton Legaré, Late Attorney General and Acting Secretary of State of the United States: Consisting of a Diary of Brussels, and Journal of the Rhine; Extracts from his Private and Diplomatic Correspondence; Orations and Speeches; and Contributions to the New-York and Southern Reviews, vol. 2 (Charleston, SC: Burges and James, 1845), 7 (‘opulent’ and ‘scholarship’); Samuel Miller, A Brief Retrospect of the Eighteenth century. Part First; In Two Volumes: Containing a Sketch of the Revolutions and Improvements in Science, Arts, and Literature, During that Period, vol. 2 (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1803), 400 (‘classics’); Michael O’Brien, Conjectures of Order: Intellectual Life and the American South, 1810–1860, vol. 1 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 91 (‘travelled’). For another example of newspapers promoting the American colleges, see the Connecticut Gazette (New Haven), 2 August 1765.

47. ‘John Collingwood Tarleton’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=tarleton&suro=w&fir=john&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 1 December 2021 (‘fellow-commoner’); Jim Piecuch, Three Peoples, One King: Loyalists, Indians, and Slaves in the Revolutionary South, 1775–1782 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2008), 239 (‘massacring’); James A. Rawley and Stephen D. Behrendt, The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 182–184 (‘slave-trading operations’); John Tarleton to Clayton Tarleton, 5 February 1788, Tarleton family correspondence, including letters and papers of Clayton Tarleton (1762–1797) during his mayoralty, 1792–93, LRO, 920 TAR/4/5 (‘minutely’ and ‘impending’); The Times, 13 September 1819 (‘worth’). Between 1750 and 1799, Pope has identified nineteen sons of slave-traders who attended Cambridge, and the wealth from these operations persisted into the nineteenth century. (‘Wealth and Social Aspirations of Liverpool’s Slave Merchants’, in Richardson et al., eds., Liverpool, 179.)

48. Greg Dening, The Death of William Gooch: A History’s Anthropology (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1995), 97 (‘200’); ‘Forby, Robert’, Leslie Stephen, ed., Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 19 (New York: Macmillan and Co., 1889), 414 (‘tutor’); Jerome Handler et al. Searching for a Slave Cemetery in Barbados, West Indies: A Bioarchaeological and Ethnohistorical Investigation (Southern Illinois University: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Research Paper No. 59, 1989), 38 (‘tenure’).

49. Ibid., 37 (‘consisted’); Abridgment of the Minutes of the Evidence: Taken Before a Committee of the whole House, to whom it was referred to consider of the Slave Trade, vol. 3 (London: Unknown, 1791), 129 (‘same’ and ‘employed’); Martin Folkes to Robert Fellowes, 20 November 1789, Letters to Sir Martin Browne Folkes re. Sir John Berney’s affairs, NRO, MC 50/45 (‘Sugar works’); The Norfolk Chronicle, or, the Norwich Gazette, 22 June 1782 (‘principal part’); Jonathan Worrell to Robert Fellowes, 15 February 1792, Letters re. Sir John Berney’s affairs, NRO, MC 50/45 (‘enhance’, ‘advantage’, ‘temporary’, ‘Domingo’, ‘peace’, and ‘produce’); Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 163 (‘abolish’); Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself (London: Printed by the Author, 1794), xviii (‘subscriber’); ‘To Be Sold’, Barbados Mercury and Bridge-Town Gazette, 17 November 1810 (‘1810’). For the names of the enslaved people on the plantation, see Journal of Hanson Plantation Accounts, 1792, NRO, FEL 884, 556X4. There are nine different references to the sale or lease of Hanson’s plantation in the 1810 editions of the Barbados Mercury, perhaps illustrating the desire of Berney’s executors to profit from the estate.

50. Josephine R. B. Wright, ‘George Polgreen Bridgetower: An African Prodigy in England, 1789–99’, The Musical Quarterly 66 (January 1980), 65–82 (‘Bachelor’); Clifford D. Panton, George Augustus Polgreen Bridgetower, Violin Virtuoso and Composer of Color in Late 18th Century Europe (New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005), 5–6 (‘father’); F. G. E., ‘George P. Bridgetower and the Kreutzer Sonata’, The Musical Times 49 (May 1908), 305 (‘renowned’) and 306 (‘composed’); The Times, 2 July 1811 (‘composition’); Vere Langford Oliver, The History of the Island of Antigua, One of the Leeward Caribbees in the West Indies. From the First Settlement in 1635 to the Present Time, vol. 3 (London: Mitchell and Hughes, 1896), 153 (‘Royal African’).

51. ‘Thomas Hopkinson’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/45307, accessed 3 March 2022 (‘admitted’); The Times, 17 September 1828 (‘man of colour’); Daniel Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune: Mixed-Race Jamaicans in Britain and the Atlantic Family, 1733–1833 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018), unpaginated e-book edition (‘shunned’); The Times, 25 August 1828 (‘nobleman’); Emilia Viotti da Costa, Crowns of Glory, Tears of Blood: The Demerara Slave Rebellion of 1823 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 223 (‘fired’); Joshua Bryant, Account of an Insurrection of the Negro Slaves in the Colony of Demerara, which broke out on the 18th of August, 1823 (Demerara: A. Stevenson, 1824), 47 (‘revolt’); Drescher, Abolition, 257 (‘freeborn’).

52. ‘Robert Collymore’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=collymore&suro=w&fir=robert&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 1 December 2021 (‘matriculated’); Katherine Paugh, The Politics of Reproduction: Race, Medicine, and Fertility in the Age of Abolition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 193–194 (‘manumitted’); Kit Candlin and Cassandra Pybus, Enterprising Women: Gender, Race, and Power in the Revolutionary Atlantic (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015), 39 (‘richest’); Jerome S. Handler, The Unappropriated People: Freedmen in the Slave Society of Barbados (Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2009), 121 (‘bequeathed’); ‘Amaryllis Collymore’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146639537, accessed 12 January 2022 (‘will’); Michael Pike Mate to Alexander Gooden, 10 August 1841, in Jonathan Smith and Christopher Stray, eds., Cambridge in the 1830s: The Letters of Alexander Chisolm Gooden, 1831–1841 (London: Boydell & Brewer, 2003), 210 (‘Sugar Bichard’). For the significance of free Black women in slave societies, see also Erin Trahey, ‘Among Her Kinswomen: Legacies of Free Women of Color in Jamaica’, WMQ 76 (April 2019), 257–288.

53. ‘Private Tuition’, The Barbadian, 17 May 1825 (‘advertisements’ and ‘instructing’); Peter Campbell Scarlett, ed., A Memoir of the Right Honourable James, First Lord Abinger Chief Baron of Her Majesty’s Court of Exchequer (London: John Murray, 1877), 22 (‘sensible’, ‘contamination’, ‘intercourse’, and ‘dialect’).

54. ‘Sir Lawrence Dundas, 1st Baronet’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146656113, accessed 29 January 2023 (‘career’); ‘Sir Keith Alexander Jackson, 2nd Baronet, of Arsley’, ibid., www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146664351, accessed 29 January 2023 (‘Jackson’); ‘Peter Isaac Thellusson, 1st Baronet Rendlesham’, ibid., www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146641149, accessed 29 January 2023 (‘heir’); Rev. Frederick Herbert Maberly, The Melancholy and Awful Death of Lawrence Dundas, Esq. (London: J. F. Dove, 1818), 4–5 (‘resort’, ‘stripping’, and ‘glutton’). Marmaduke Lawson, a Magdalene fellow, responded with a scathing rejoinder; see Strictures on the Rev. F. H. Maberly’s Account of ‘The Melancholy and Awful End of Lawrence Dundas, Esq. of Trinity College;’ and His Appeal to the University on its Laxity of Discipline (London: Bensley and Sons, 1818).

55. ‘Stephen Fuller’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146645307, accessed 30 September 2021 (‘£10,000’); ‘Francis Henry Dickinson’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=dickinson&suro=w&fir=francis&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=9999, accessed 1 December 2021 (‘1831’); ‘Edmund Henry Dickinson’, ibid. (‘1838’); George Dickinson to Francis Henry Dickinson, 7 June 1838, Correspondence received by Francis Henry Dickinson (usually at Kingweston), 1833–1838, SHC, DD/DN/4/4/5 (‘Club’); George Peacock to Francis Henry Dickinson, 23 June 1838, ibid. (‘Astronomy’); Printed rules of the Association of Jamaica Proprietors, 1838, Listing the Names members of the Association’s Select Committee for 1838–1839, ibid., 9 (‘Association’); Will of Thomas Lowndes of London, Prerogative Court of Canterbury and related Probate Jurisdictions: Will Registers, TNA, PROB 11/762/307 (‘my estate’); The Memorial of the Association of Jamaica Proprietors to the Viscount Melbourne and the Marquis of Normanby, 24 May 1838, in Papers Relative to the West Indies. Part IV. Bahamas. Honduras. Mauritius. Cape of Good Hope (London: House of Commons, 1839), 2 (‘proportion’). Historians who have challenged this rise and fall narrative include Christopher Petley, ed., Rethinking the Fall of the Planter Class (London: Routledge, 2016); Nicholas Draper, ‘The Rise of a New Planter Class? Some Countercurrents from British Guiana and Trinidad, 1807–33’, Atlantic Studies 9 (January 2012), 65–83; and Nicholas Draper, Price of Emancipation, 341–346.

1. John Peile, Biographical Register of Christ’s College, 1505–1905, and of the Earlier Foundation, God’s House, 1448–1505, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910), 215 (‘fellow’); An Account of Two Missionary Voyages by the Appointment of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (London: Benjamin Dod, 1758), 35–38 (‘five years’) and 43 (‘Barbarians’). For Thompson’s travel writings in North America, see A Letter from New Jersey in America, Giving Some Account and Description of that Province (London: M. Cooper, 1756). Thompson also published his A Discourse Relating to the Present Times, Addressed to the Serious Consideration of the Public (London: J. Oliver, 1757).

2. Newman, A New World of Labor, 39–41 (‘Castle’); Thompson, An Account of Two Missionary Voyages, 37 (‘Table’); Governor Thomas Melvil to African Committee, 11 June 1752, in Vincent Caretta and Ty M. Reese, eds., The Life and Letters of Philip Quaque: The First African Anglican Missionary (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 189 (‘convert’ and ‘Prophets’).

3. Travis Glasson, Mastering Christianity: Missionary Anglicanism and Slavery in the Atlantic World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 174–175 (‘Quaque’); Thomas Thompson, The African Trade for Negro Slaves, Consistent with Humanity and Revealed Religion (Canterbury: Simmons and Kirkby, 1772), 6 (‘dedicated’) and title page (‘SOMETIME FELLOW’); Stephen J. Braidwood, Black Poor and White Philanthropists: London’s Blacks and the Foundation of the Sierra Leone Settlement 1786–1791 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994), 267 (‘African Company’). Thompson’s arguments aligned with the views of the Royal African Company and its successor organisation, the African Company of Merchants: that African enslavement improved the lives of enslaved Africans because they were free from human sacrifices, cannibalism, and paganism in their homelands. (Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 196.) For Thompson’s impact on proslavery discourse, see Tise, Proslavery, 24–25; Swaminathan, Debating the Slave Trade, 142–143; Jack P. Greene, Evaluating Empire and Confronting Colonialism in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 180–183; and Molly Oshatz, Slavery & Sin: The Fight against Slavery and the Rise of Liberal Protestantism (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 27–29.

4. Thompson, African Trade, 8 (‘necessity’) and 30 (‘natives’).

5. Granville Sharp, An Essay on Slavery, Proving from Scripture its Inconsistency with Humanity and Religion (Burlington: Isaac Collins, 1776), 19 (‘leisure’) and 28 (‘destroys’); Edmund Keene, A Sermon Preached before the Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; At Their Parish Church of St. Mary-Le-Bow On Friday February 18, 1757 (London: E. Owen and T. Harrison, 1757), 59–60 (‘Distemper’); Letter of Thanks to the Master and Fellows of Christ’s College, 8 March 1757, Letters from Thomas Thompson, CCMR (‘Benefaction’). For Benezet’s attack against Thompson, see also Jonathan D. Sassi, ‘Anthony Benezet as Intermediary between the Transatlantic and Provincial: New Jersey’s Antislavery Campaign on the Eve of the American Revolution’, in Marie-Jeanne Rossignol and Betrand Van Ruymbeke, eds., The Atlantic World of Anthony Benezet (1713–1784): From French Reformation to American Quaker Antislavery Activism (Leiden: Brill 2017), 136. Furthermore, in a 22 August 1772 letter to Benezet Benjamin Franklin noted the ‘great Effects’ that the abolitionist had achieved in his attacks against Thompson’s pamphlet. (Benjamin Franklin to Anthony Benezet, 22 August 1772, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-19-02-0173, accessed 7 January 2022.) In 1776, Sharp lambasted slavery’s ‘advocates’ who had ‘palliate[d] the guilt [of enslavers], and have even ventured to appeal to Scripture’ to justify their actions. (Granville Sharp, The Just Limitation of Slavery in the Laws of God, Compared with the unbounded Claims of the African Traders and British American Slaveholders [London: B. White, 1776], 2–3.)

6. For the spread of Christianity and the debates within its denominations about slavery and abolition, see Glasson, Mastering Christianity; Randy J. Sparks, On Jordan’s Stormy Banks: Evangelicalism in Mississippi, 1773–1876 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994); Kenneth P. Minkema, ‘Jonathan Edwards on Slavery and the Slave Trade’, WMQ 54 (October 1997), 823–834; Mary Turner, Slaves and Missionaries: The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787–1834 (Barbados: The Press University of the West Indies, 1998); Sylvia R. Frey and Betty Wood, Come Shouting to Zion: African American Protestantism in the American South and British Caribbean to 1830 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Jon F. Sensbach, Rebecca’s Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Philip Hoffman, ‘Christian Missionaries, Slavery, and the Slave Trade: The Third Order of Saint Francis in Eighteenth-Century Angola’, African Economic History 51 (May 2023), 65–92; and Gerbner, Christian Slavery.

7. Andrew Fitzmaurice, Humanism and America: An Intellectual History of English Colonisation, 1500–1625 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 66–67 (‘educated’ and ‘vigorous’); P. J. Wallis, ‘The Library of William Crashawe’, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society 2 (1956), 223 (‘Southampton’).

8. ‘The Names of the Adventurers, with their seuerall summes aduentured, paid to Sir Thomas Smith, Knight, late Treasurer of the Company for Virginia’, 22 June 1620, in Susan Myra Kingsbury, ed., The Records of the Virginia Company, vol. 3 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935), 322 (‘shareholder’); William Crashaw, A sermon preached in London before the right honorable the Lord Lavvarre, Lord Gouernour and Captaine Generall of Virginea, and others of his Maiesties Counsell for that kingdome, and the rest of the aduenturers in that plantation (London: W. Hall, 1610), unnumbered (‘soules’, ‘want’, and ‘richer’); Draft of open letter, c.1619, Nicholas Ferrar Papers, MC, FP 134 (‘Schooles’ and ‘Civilitye’).

9. ‘Nicholas Ferrar’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=ferrar&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 2 December 2021 (‘Clare Hall’); Peter Peckard, ‘A Life of Nicholas Ferrar’, in B. Blackstone, ed., The Ferrar Papers: Containing a Life of Nicholas Ferrar, the Winding Sheet an Ascetic Dialogue, a Collection of Short Moral Histories, and a Selection of Family Letters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1938), 67 (‘Raleigh’); Michael Leroy Oberg, Dominion and Civility: English Imperialism and Native America, 1585–1685 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 69 (‘headright’); Allan Lawson Maycock, Nicholas Ferrar of Little Gidding (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1938), 167–168 (‘iron’); Ben Marsh, Unravelled Dreams: Silk and the Atlantic World, 1500–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 126–135 (‘silkworks’); Alexander Whitaker, Good newes from Virginia Sent to the Counsell and Company of Virginia, resident in England (London: William Welby, 1613) (‘Scholler’). See also Andrew Fitzmaurice, Sovereignty, Property and Empire, 1500–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 60–62.

10. Newman, A New World of Labor, 82 (‘tens’); Brendan Smith, Crisis and Survival in Late Medieval Ireland: The English of Louth and Their Neighbours, 1330–1450 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 82–83 (‘Visitation’); Maeve Callan, ‘Making Monsters Out of One Another in the Early Fourteenth-Century British Isles’, Eolas: The Journal of the American Society of Irish Medieval Studies 12 (2019), 58 (‘sacrilegious’, ‘crusade’, ‘wellbeing’, and ‘just war’); ‘William Bedell’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=bedell&suro=w&fir=william&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 29 June 2022 (‘Bedell’); ‘Sir Thomas Bendish (1607–1674)’, St John’s College, Cambridge, www.joh.cam.ac.uk/library/special_collections/early_books/bendish.htm, accessed 22 May 2023 (‘books’); David Brown, Empire and Enterprise: Money, Power and the Adventurers for Irish Land during the British Civil Wars (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2020), 235 (‘East India’, ‘Muscovy’, and ‘£250’) and 239 (‘£400’); Charles Saye, Annals of Cambridge University Library (Cambridge: University Library, 1916), 80 (‘forty’); Robert Potts, Liber Cantabrigiensis, an Account of the Aids Afforded to Poor Students, the Encouragements Offered to Diligent Students, and the Rewards Conferred on Successful Students, in the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1855), 365 (‘ten’). Ash’s benefaction to Emmanuel was made in 1654 following his speculation with the Adventurers. For the colonisation of Ireland, particularly the Ulster plantation, see Nicholas P. Canny, Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); Audrey J. Horning, Ireland in the Virginian Sea: Colonialism in the British Atlantic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Gerard Farrell, The ‘Mere Irish’ and the Colonisation of Ulster, 1570–1641 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017); John Patrick Montaño, The Roots of English Colonialism in Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); and Patricia Palmer, Language and Conquest in Early Modern Ireland: English Renaissance Literature and Elizabethan Imperial Expansion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

11. John Strype, The Life of the Learned Sir Thomas Smith, Kt. Doctor of the Civil Law, Principal Secretary of State to King Edward the Sixth, and Queen Elizabeth (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1820).

12. Ibid. (‘thirteen-year’); Indenture and Patent of 5 October 1571, ibid., 131–132 (‘wicked’); Hiram Morgan, ‘The Colonial Venture of Sir Thomas Smith in Ireland, 1571–1575’, HJ 28 (June 1985), 261 (‘enrichment’).

13. Ibid., 262 (‘joint-stock’) and 264 (‘three’); Sir Thomas Smith, A Letter sent by I. B. Gentleman unto his very frende Mayster R. C. Esquire, wherin is conteined a large discourse of the peopling and inhabiting the Cuntrie called the Ardes, and other adiacent in the North of Ireland, and taken in hand by Sir Thomas Smith, one of the Queens Maisties priuie counsel, and Thomas Smith Esquire, his sonne (London: Henry Binneman, 1572) (‘godly’); Jonathan McMahon, ‘The Humanism of Sir Thomas Smith’ (MA dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1999), 63 (‘playnting’, ‘barbarity’, and ‘profite’); Nicholas P. Canny, ‘The Permissive Frontier: The Problem of Social Control in English Settlements in Ireland and Virginia, 1550–1650’, in Nicholas P. Canny et al., eds., The Westward Enterprise: English Activities in Ireland, the Atlantic, and America, 1480–1650 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1978), 24 (‘Eutopia’); D. B. Quinn, ‘Renaissance Influences in English Colonization’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 26 (December 1976), 545 (‘Eden’s’); Pietro Martire d’Anghiera and Richard Eden, The decades of the new worlde or west India conteynyng the nauigations and conquests of the Spanyardes, with the particular description of the most ryche and large landes and islandes lately founde in the west ocean perteynyng to the inheritaunce of the kings of Spayne (London: Edwarde Sutton, 1555) (‘cannibalistic’); Horning, Ireland in the Virginian Sea, 277 (‘transferred’).

14. Anne McLaren, ‘Reading Sir Thomas Smith’s De Republica Anglorum as Protestant Apologetic’, HJ 42 (December 1999), 911–939 (‘justified’); Sir Thomas Smith, De Republica Anglorum: The maner of Gouernement or policie of the Realme of England, compiled by the Honorable man Thomas Smyth, Doctor of the civil lawes, Knight, and principall Secretarie unto the two most worthie Princes, King Edwarde the sixt, and Queene Elizabeth (London: Henrie Midleton, 1583), 107 (‘servi’), 10–11 (‘free men’ and ‘instruments’); David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 51 (‘Vagrancy Act’); Strype, Life of the Learned Sir Thomas Smith, 207 (‘leaving’). See also Johann P. Somerville, ‘English and Roman Liberty in the Monarchical Republic of Early Stuart England’, in John F. McDiarmid, ed., The Monarchical Republic of Early Modern England: Essays in Response to Patrick Collinson (London and New York: Routledge, 2016), 212–213.

15. Kennedy, Isle of Devils, 174, 189, 206–211, 216–218, 237–238, 243, and 247 (‘brought to the island’); Frederick Johnson Simmons, Emmanuel Downing (Montclair, NJ: Unknown Publisher, 1958), 82–86 (‘scholar’); Emmanuel Downing to John Winthrop, August 1645, in Adam Winthrop, ed., Winthrop Papers, vol. 5 (Boston: The Massachusetts Historical Society, 1947), 38 (‘pilladge’); Wendy Warren, New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017), 265–266 (‘1,300’). According to Warren, enslaved Black and Indigenous people made up ten per cent of New England’s population in the seventeenth century. (Ibid., 266.)

16. ‘Letter from John Elliot Protesting against Selling Indians as Slaves, 13 August 1675’, Yale Indian Papers Project, https://findit.library.yale.edu/yipp/catalog/digcoll:1018374, accessed 29 June 2022 (‘sending’, ‘perpetual’, ‘extirpate’, ‘dangerous’, ‘condition’, and ‘destroying’); ‘Epistle XLIII. Mr. Mede’s Answer to Dr. Twisse his Fourth Letter, touching the first Gentile Inhabitants, and the late Christian Plantations, in America: as also touching our Saviour’s proof of the Resurrection from Exod. 3. 6. with an Answer to the Objection in the Postscript of the foregoing Letter’, in Joseph Mede, The Works of the Pious and Profoundly-Learned Joseph Mede, B. D. Sometime Fellow of Christ’s College in Cambridge. In Five Books: The Fourth Edition (London: Roger Norton and Richard Royston, 1677), 799 (‘well as’ and ‘grounds’) and 800 (‘barbarous’, ‘good’, ‘Christ’, ‘Mastives’, ‘hunt’, ‘worry’, ‘hideous’, ‘Army’, and ‘Kingdom’). For Native American enslavement, see Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002); Brett Rushforth, Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous & Atlantic Slaveries in New France (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Reséndez, Other Slavery; Tiya Miles, Ties that Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005); and Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010).

17. John Thornton, ‘The African Experience of the “20. and Odd Negroes” Arriving in Virginia in 1619’, WMQ 55 (July 1988), 421 (‘odd’); John Pory to Sir Dudley Carleton, 30 September 1619, in Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, vol. 3, 619–622 (‘victualled’); William S. Powell, John Pory, 1572–1636: The Life and Letters of a Man of Many Parts (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), 9–19 (‘Pory’); al-Hasan Muhammad al-Wazzan (or “Joannes Leo Africanus”), A Geographical Historie of Africa, written in Arabicke and Italian by John Leo a More, borne in Grenada, and brought up in Barbarie (London: George Bishop, 1600), title (‘lately’), 6 (‘Negros’ and ‘Noah’), and 36 (‘hereditary’); Neill, ed., Othello, 223 (‘influenced’). For Pory’s translation and interpretation of al-Wazzan’s work, see Whitford, Curse of Ham, 128–129. See also Engel Sluiter, ‘New Light on the “20. and Odd Negroes” Arriving in Virginia, August 1619’, WMQ 54 (April 1997), 395–398.

18. Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, vol. 3, 565–571 (‘347’); ‘Samuel Macocke’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=macocke&suro=w&fir=samuel&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 2 December 2020 (‘alumnus’); Alden T. Vaughan, ‘“Expulsion of the Salvages”: English Policy and the Virginia Massacre of 1622’, WMQ 35 (January 1978), 57–84 (‘historians’); Edward Waterhouse and Henry Briggs, A declaration of the state of the colony and affaires in Virginia With a relation of the barbarous massacre in the time of peace and league, treacherously executed by the native infidels upon the English, the 22 of March last (London: Robert Mylbourne, 1622) (‘conquering’, ‘Mastives’, and ‘wilde’).

19. Henry Briggs, ‘A Treatise of the Northwest Passage to the South Sea, through the Continent of Virginia and by Fretum Hudson’, in Waterhouse and Briggs, A Declaration of the State of the Colony, 45 (‘noble’) and 50 (‘ignorant’ and ‘publique’); Grants of Shares in Virginia, 30 January 1622, in Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, vol. 3, 592 (‘shares’); Virginia Company to the Virginia Governor and Council, October 1622, in ibid., 683 (‘revenge’); Gregory Ablavsky, ‘Making Indians “White”: The Judicial Abolition of Native Slavery in Revolutionary Virginia and Its Racial Legacy’, University of Pennsylvania Law Review 159 (April 2011), 1492 (‘Native American’). The practice of Native American enslavement continued in Virginia until 1806. For the Powhatan and their allies, see Helen Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989); James Axtell, The Rise and Fall of the Powhatan Empire: Indians in Seventeenth-Century Virginia (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1995); and Frederic W. Gleach, Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1997). For the pervasive anti-Indian sentiment in North America, see Wayne E. Lee, Barbarians and Brothers: Anglo-American Warfare, 1500–1865 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 226; Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008); and Parkinson, Common Cause.

20. ‘John Donne’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=donne&suro=w&fir=john&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=999, accessed 3 December 2021 (‘rectorship’); Thomas Festa, ‘The Metaphysics of Labor in John Donne’s Sermon to the Virginia Company’, Studies in Philology 106 (Winter 2009), 99 (‘theoretical’).

21. Sermon Preached to the Virginia Company, 13 November 1622, in John Carey, ed., John Donne: The Major Works (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 321 (‘Plantation’); William G. Hinkle, A History of Bridewell Prison, 1553–1700 (New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2006) (‘Bridewell’); Festa, ‘Metaphysics of Labor’, 96 (‘impoverished children’). For Donne’s thought, see Tom Cain, ‘John Donne and the Ideology of Colonization’, English Literary Renaissance 31 (Autumn 2001), 440–476; and Achsah Guibbory, ed., The Cambridge Companion to John Donne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

22. John Ray, The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (London: Samuel Smith, 1691), 114 (‘Improvement’ and ‘Industry’) and 117–118 (‘civil’, ‘thy Country’, ‘Merchandise’, ‘Wilderness’, ‘Scythia’, ‘unpolished’, ‘slothful’, ‘Cabans’, and ‘brute’); Brown, Good Wives, 57–58 (‘indolent’).

23. Shareholders in the Virginia Company from 1615 to 1623, in Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, vol. 3, 59 (‘shareholder’); Copy of the Codicil of Lord Brooke’s Will, 6 September 1628, Papers of the Regius Professor of Modern History, University registry guard books, 1327–2000, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/CUR 39.14 (‘founding’); Charles Henry Cooper, On an Early Autograph of Sir Henry Spelman, with Some New or not Generally Known Facts Respecting Him, 13 May 1861, ibid. (‘lectureship’, ‘MP’, ‘induced’, and ‘treasurer’); J. M. Svalastog, Mastering the Worst of Trades: England’s Early Africa Companies and their Traders, 1618–1672 (Brill: Leiden, 2021), 62 (‘ambitions’); Gillian Weiss, Captives and Corsairs: France and Slavery in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 8–9 (‘seized’); Quoted in C. W. W. Greenridge, Slavery (London: Allen and Unwin, 1958), 123 (‘poor’ and ‘prisoners’) For Spelman, see also Peter J. Lucas, ‘A Conspectus of Letters to and from Sir Henry Spelman (1563/4–1641)’, The Antiquaries Journal 102 (2022), 370–388.

24. Jacqueline Cox, ‘Trials and Tribulations: The Cambridge University Courts, 1540–1660’, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society 15 (2015), 595–623 (‘court of record’); Lobspruch deB edlen/hochberühmten Krauts Petum oder Taback (Nuremburg: Paul Fürst, 1658) (‘noble herb’); John Swan, Speculum Mundi or a Glasse Representing the Face of the World; Shewing both that it did begin, and must also end: The manner How, and time When being largely examined (Cambridge: Printers to the University of Cambridge, 1635), 266 (‘vertues’, ‘West Indies’, ‘helpeth’, ‘bitings’, and ‘mad’); Lucinda Cole, Imperfect Creatures: Vermin, Literature, and the Sciences of Life, 1600–1740 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2016), 135 (‘canines’); Office v. Whitney of Gonville and Caius College, 17 January 1611, Act Book, 18 January 1610 to October 1612, Vice-Chancellor’s Court records, 1498–1957, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/VCCt.I 7, 184r (‘puffing’); Interrogatories ex parte Henry Gooch, 25 January 1619/20, 1619 [Exhibita] coram Dre Scott, Procan:’, 1616–1620, ibid., VCCt.III 24, 46 (‘expelled’); Vice-Chancellor’s rules for behaviour of University members, ‘1623 [Exhibita] coram Dre Paske, Procan:’; 1624 [Exhibita] coram Dre Mansell, Procan:’, 1610–1626, ibid., 27, 112 (‘attendance’); Seven licensed tobacconists promise to sell to innholders, shopkeepers, and the like, 17 June 1635, ‘1635 [Exhibita] coram Dre Smith, Procan’.; ‘1636 [Exhibita] coram Dre Comber, Procan’., 1615–1638, ibid., 34, 18–20 (‘seven’); List of unlicensed retailers of tobacco, 19 January 1634/5, ‘1633 [Exhibita] coram Dre Love, Procan’.; 1634 [Exhibita] coram Dre Beale, Procan’., 1620–1635, ibid., 33, 137b (‘unlicensed’).

25. Wesley Frank Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company: The Failure of a Colonial Experiment (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1964) (‘substantial losses’); A Complete List in Alphabetical Order of the ‘Adventurers to Virginia’, With the Several Amounts of their Holdings, 1618, in Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, vol. 3, 83 (‘£50’) and 86 (‘1618’ and ‘£400’); The Names of the Adventurers, with the seueral summes adventured, 22 June 1620, in ibid., 329 (‘1620’); Howard Staunton, The Great Schools of England (London: Strahan and Co., Publishers, 1869), 426 (‘property’); David L. Niddrie, ‘An Attempt at Planned Settlement in St Kitts in the Early Eighteenth Century’, Caribbean Studies 5 (January 1966), 3 (‘grant’). See also Brian O’Farrell, Shakespeare’s Patron, William Herbert, Third Earl of Pembroke 1580–1630: Politics, Patronage and Power (London: Bloomsbury, 2011), 143–158.

26. Larzer Ziff, The Career of John Cotton: Puritanism and the American Experience (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), 3–35 (‘matriculated’); John Cotton, God’s Promise to His Plantations (London: John Bellamy, 1634), 8–9 (‘plant’, ‘merchandize’, and ‘Arise’); Franklin Bowditch Dexter, The Influence of the English Universities in the Development of New England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1880), 5–6 (‘exodus’). For Cotton and his career in New England, see also Warren, New England Bound, 22–24.

27. The Body of Liberties, 1641, in William H. Whitmore, ed., The Colonial Laws of Massachusetts (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1890), 53 (‘slaverie’ and ‘liberties’); Warren, New England Bound, 35 (‘antislavery clause’ and ‘legalised’).

28. Sargent Bush, The Library of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1584–1637 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 27 (‘5,000’); Michael Edwards, ‘Slavery and Charity: Tobias Rustat and the African Companies, 1662–94’, Historical Research 97 (2024), 64 (‘court’) and 80–81 (‘helped’ and ‘two fee-farms’); Transcript, made 1830, of Bishop Thomas Sherlock’s collections on University customs, privileges, and property, mid 18th century, University Registry miscellanea, 1544–1988, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/Misc.Collect.18, 43–44 (‘University Library’ and ‘Oxford’); The Laws of Jamaica, Passed by the Assembly, And Confirmed by His Majesty in Council, April 17. 1684 (London: H. H. Jun., 1684), x (‘seated’, ‘sweet’, ‘Cross’, ‘world’, and ‘serve’) and xi (‘Lyttleton’); Benjamin Justice, ‘The Art of Coining Christians: Indians and Authority in the Iconography of British Atlantic Colonial Seals’, Journal of British Studies 61 (January 2022), 118–119 (‘barbarousness’); Matthew Kruer, Time of Anarchy: Indigenous Power and the Crisis of Colonialism in Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2022), 24–48 (‘resistance’); Caroline Dodds Pennock, On Savage Shores: How Indigenous Americans Discovered Europe (New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 2023), 51 (‘diplomatic missions’).

29. ‘John Mapletoft’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=MPLT648J&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 29 January 2023 (‘matriculated’); Articles of Agreement between the Lords Proprietors of the Bahama Islands and the Bahama Adventurers, 4 September 1672, in Larry J. Kreitzer, ed., William Kiffen and His World (Part 1), foreword by Paul S. Fiddes (Oxford: Centre for Baptist History and Heritage Studies, Regent’s Park College, 2010), 365–366 (‘Association’ and ‘royalties’); Sir Peter Colleton to John Locke, in E. S. De Beer, ed., The Correspondence of John Locke, Volume One (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 379–380 (‘planting’). For a helpful overview of Locke’s investments in and perspective on slavery and the slave trade, see Holly Brewer, ‘Slavery, Sovereignty, and “Inheritable Blood”: Reconsidering John Locke and the Origins of American Slavery’, The American Historical Review 122 (October 2017), esp. 1042–1043.

30. J. C. D. Clark, English Society, 1660–1832: Religion, Ideology and Politics during the ancien régime (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 27–28 (‘bolstered’); Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 11–54 (‘distinctive’); Jeremy Gregory, ‘Introduction’, in Jeremy Gregory ed., The Oxford History of Anglicanism, Volume II: Establishment and Empire, 1662–1829 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 5 (‘twin pillars’); E. R. Norman, Church and Society in England, 1770–1970: An Historical Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 19 (‘upheld’); W. M. Jacob, The Clerical Profession in the Long Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 40–41 (‘gentile’) and 45 (‘seventy-eight’).

31. Tim Harris, ‘Anti-Catholicism and Anti-Popery in Seventeenth-Century England’, in Eran Haefli, ed., Against Popery: Britain, Empire, and Anti-Catholicism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2020), 28 (‘anti-English’); Jonathan Healey, The Blazing World: A New History of Revolutionary England, 1603–1689 (New York: Vintage, 2023), 23–25 (‘gunpowder’) and 379 (‘great’); Thomas Taylor, ‘The Romish Furnace’, in Thomas Taylor, The Works of the Judicious and Learned Divine Thomas Taylor D. D. Late Pastor of Aldermanbury London, vol. 2 (London: Thomas Ratcliffe, 1659), 231 (‘Romish’, ‘effusion’, ‘seven’, ‘throwne’, ‘poore’, ‘hang’, and ‘dash’); J. Frederick Fausz, ‘An “Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides”: England’s First Indian War, 1609–1614’, VMHB 98 (January 1990), 32 (‘deadliest’) and 33 (‘shoteinge’).

32. Lisa Jardine, Going Dutch: How England Plundered Holland’s Glory (London: Harper Press, 2008), 47–49 (‘Torbay’); 13 December 1688, in J. E. Foster, ed., The Diary of Samuel Newton Alderman of Cambridge (1662–1717) (Cambridge: Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 1890), 96 (‘2 or 300’, ‘pretence’, ‘seeke’, ‘ransack[ed]’, and ‘armes’); 14 December 1688, in ibid., 97 (‘Irish’, ‘cut’, and ‘escape’); Henry More to Lady Conway, March 1664–65, in Marjorie Hope Nicolson and Sarah Hutton, eds., The Conway Letters: The Correspondence of Anne, Viscountess Conway, Henry More, and their Friends 1642–1684 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 233 (‘Irish beasts’).

33. The Company to Doctors Connett, Owen, Goodwin, and Wilkinson at Oxford, and Doctors Tuckney and Arrowsmith at Cambridge, 13 February 1658, in Ethel Bruce Sainsbury and William Foster, eds., A Calendar of the Court Minutes Etc. of the East India Company 1655–1659 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1916), 227 (‘godly’); Roger Wood to Nathaniel Barnard, 1634, in John Henry Lefroy, ed., Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Island, 1515–1685: Compiled from the Colonial Records and Other Original Sources, vol. 1 (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1877), 541 (‘help us’).

34. Venn and Venn, ed., Alumni Cantabrigiensis, Part I, vol. 2, 95 (‘Scholar’); Receipt for Money, 27 March 1700, Receipts for money paid to the College, 1441–1918, KCA, GBR/0272/KCA/242 (‘three advowsons’); Rev. Robert Robinson, A Letter to the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of London, From An Inhabitant of His Majesty’s Leeward-Caribbee-Islands (London: J. Wilford, 1730), 76 (‘Propagate’, ‘Thirty’, ‘none’, and ‘Divinity’).

35. Reid, ‘Whig Declamation’, 635 (‘declamation’); Will of John Craister, of Trinity College of Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, Prerogative Court of Canterbury and related Probate Jurisdictions: Will Registers, TNA, PROB 11/684/201 (‘Learning’ and ‘security’); Doctor John Craister’s Legacy to the College Stated, Muniments, Senior Bursar’s Audit Books, 1739–1756, WL (‘Bonds’ and ‘£80’).

36. 8 May 1752, Magdalene College Register III, 1675–1814, MC, B/423, 751 (‘repairs’); Due upon the Proby Fund, 17 December 1720, Audit Book, 1709–1734, College Accounts, JC, JCCA/JCAD/2/2/1/6 (‘South Sea’); Dr Charles Proby, List of Holders of East India Company Stock, April 1707, Stocks and Bonds of the East India Company, BL, IOR/H/3, 179 (‘£400’); Alfred William Winterslow Dale, ed., Warren’s Book (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911), 303–304 (‘Oxenden’); 3 January 1740–41, Chest Book, 1690–1794, TH, GBR/1936/THAR/2/2/5/1 (‘Pinfold’); Will of John Andrews, Wills, ibid., 6/1/2/1 (‘Andrews’); Exton Sayer, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6459, 432 (‘South Sea’); ‘Sayer, Exton (c. 1691–1731), of Doctors’ Commons, London’, The History of Parliament, www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1715-1754/member/sayer-exton-1691-1731, accessed 29 June 2022 (‘East India’). For more on the Proby fund and the South Sea losses, see also Dr Caryl’s Book on Statutes, Trusts, &c., College Statutes, JC, JCCA/JCGB/4/3/8, 105. At Magdalene College, the principal and interest of the bond were calculated at over £113 in June 1752.

37. Venn and Venn, ed., Alumni Cantabrigiensis, Part I, vol 1, 171 (‘fellow’); Probate will of Samuel Blythe, 1713, Blythe Benefaction (now Blythe Trust), CCA, GB 1114/CCAD/4/1/2/2/1 (‘entirety’); Daniel Lysons and Samuel Lysons, Magna Britannia; Being a Concise Topographical Account of the Several Counties of Great Britain, vol. 2 (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1810), 148 (‘great’); George Measom, The Official Illustrated Guide to the Great Eastern Railway (Cambridge Line): With Descriptions of Some of the Most Important Manufactories in the Towns on the Lines (Cambridge: C. Griffin and Co., 1865), 138 (‘principal’); ‘The Samuel Blythe Society’, Clare College, University of Cambridge, www.clarealumni.com/pages/supporting-clare/the-samuel-blythe-society, accessed 1 July 2022 (‘continuing’).

38. Accounts of Blythe Benefaction, Blythe Benefaction, CCA, GB 1114/CCAD/4/1/2/2/3, 4 (‘East India’) and 166 (‘271’); Laurence Fowler and Helen Fowler, ed., Cambridge Commemorated: An Anthology of University Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 99 (‘Perrott’); Gary Parks, ed., Virginia Tax Records: From the Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, the William and Mary Quarterly, and Tyler’s Quarterly (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1983), 243 (‘acre’).

39. Accounts of Blythe Benefaction, Blythe Benefaction, CCA, GB 1114/CCAD/4/1/2/2/3, 166 (‘windfall’), 186 (‘£3,500’), 39 (‘South Sea’), 44 (‘interest’), and 116 (‘sold’). See P. S. Gooddard to Charles Yorke, 10 November 1762, Correspondence of Charles Yorke Regarding Cambridge University, 1752–1770, BL, Add MS 35640/84.

40. Brooke, History of Gonville & Caius, 150–152 (‘fellowship’); Charter Granted to the English Company, Trading to the East-Indies, 5 September 1698, in John Shaw, ed., Charters Relating to the East India Company from 1600 to 1761 (Madras: R. Hill, 1887), 133 (‘invested’), 145 (‘five hundred’), and 151 (‘last Will’).

41. Ibid., 144 (‘instruct’); Penelope Carson, The East India Company and Religion, 1698–1858 (London: Boydell Press, 2012), 7–8 (‘decent’ and ‘Gentoos’); Stern, Company-State, 22 (‘Barbados’); Indenture Tripartite Between Her Majesty Queen Anne and the Two East-India Companies, For Uniting the Said Companies, 21 July 1702, in Shaw, ed., Charters Relating to the East India Company, 157 (‘merge’). For independent traders ‘interloping’ in the transatlantic slave trade, see also Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 88–89.

42. Bartholomew Wortley, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6452, 775 (‘stock’); An Account Taken of my Mortgages, Bonds and other Obligations then Due, 16 November 1741, Wortley Benefaction Account, GCC, GC/BUR/F/74 (‘Villain’, and ‘Annihilated’); William Barbor to Thomas Gooch, 1 June 1749, Wortley Account, GCC, GC/BUR/F/74 (‘Papers’); Will of Bartholomew Wortley, Clerk of Bratton Fleming, Devon, 7 June 1749, Prerogative Court of Canterbury, TNA, PROB 11/771/66 (‘funded’). For Wortley’s South Sea investments, see also Bartholomew Wortley, New South Sea Company Annuities Ledgers, BEAC27/6051/920.

43. Rev. John Fairfax, Life of the Rev. Owen Stockton, M.A. (London: Religious Tract Society, 1832), 3–5 (‘schooling’); Brooke, History of Gonville & Caius, 134, n. 35 (‘£500’); Will of Owen Stockton, 20 December 1678, Robert Woodberry Lovett, ed., Documents from the Harvard University Archives, 1638–1750 (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1975), 137 (‘reside’); ‘An Account of the Fire at Harvard-College, in Cambridge; with the Loss sustained thereby’, Massachusetts-Gazette, 2 February 1764 (‘Old Testament’ and ‘oriental’); Lisa Tanya Brooks, Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018), 81 (‘subjects’); David Silverman, Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871 (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 47–48 (‘alliances’); Stockton Account Book, Stockton Benefaction Account, GCC, BUR/F/70 (‘£300’).

44. John Robertson, ‘Empire and Union: Two Concepts of the Early Modern European Political Order’, in John Robertson ed., A Union for Empire: Political Thought and the British Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 32–33 (‘Panama’); ‘List of subscribers to the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies, 1696–1700’, NatWest Group Archive, www.natwestgroup.com/heritage/companies/company-of-scotland-trading-to-africa-and-the-indies.html, accessed 16 September 2022 (‘investors included’); ‘George Mosman’, Edinburgh University Library Gallery of Benefactors, www.docs.is.ed.ac.uk/docs/lib-archive/bgallery/Gallery/records/fifteen/mosman.html, accessed 16 September 2022 (‘library donor’); C. P. Finlayson, ‘Edinburgh University and the Darien Scheme’, The Scottish Historical Review 34 (October 1955), 97 (‘Scott’) and 102 (‘well-merited’ and ‘four-square’). See also Julie M. Orr, Scotland, Darien and the Atlantic World (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018).

45. Glasson, Mastering Christianity, 141 (‘Codrington’); Subscription Book, 1698–1768, Subscriptions to the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/C1/1 (‘list of college fellows’); 5 April 1726 and 23 June 1743, Master/Registry Gesta, 1849–1857, GCC, GOV/03/01/05; Festo Mich. 1726 to Festum Annunc. 1727 and Festo Michaelis 1752 to Festum Annunc. 1753, College Bursar Book, 1792–1810, GCC, GC/BUR/F/88 (‘donations’); Dr. Spencer’s Account, 1693–1929, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC02/B/146 (‘Society’ and ‘Propagation’).

46. Henry Newman to the Marquis Duqueñe, 25 January 1723/24, Henry Newman’s Jamaica Letter Books, 1722–1729, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/D4/44-45 (‘elegantly’, ‘Bubble’, and ‘Adventure’); August 1720 Shares, Papers of the Royal Mines Company, Jamaica, Vol. 1, BL, MS Add. 43498 (‘Supported with investments’); Henry Newman to Duke of Portland, Middle Temple, 17 August 1724, Newman’s Jamaica Books, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/D4/44-45 (‘Modern History’).

47. Brent S. Sirota, The Christian Monitors: The Church of England and the Age of Benevolence, 1680–1730 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 139 (‘Tranquebar’); Accounts of the Subscriptions and Expenditure, 1710–1719, Papers of the Protestant Mission to the East Indies, 1710–1859, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/C12/1 (‘Cash’ and ‘individual subscriptions’); 14 September and 26 November 1726, Cash Account Book, 1710–1732, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/C5/1 (‘donation’); 10 May 1729, Accounts, 1719–1734, Papers of the Protestant Mission, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/C12/2 (‘£4,000’).

48. Dr. Bray’s Feoffment, 15 January 1730, in Rodney M. Baine, ed., Creating Georgia: Minutes of the Bray Associates 1730–1732 & Supplementary Documents (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 5–6 (‘£900’); Abstract of the Proceeding of the Associates of Doctor Bray, For the Year 1785 (London: Unknown, 1785), 18 (‘Heslop’); An Account of the Designs of the Associates of the late Dr Bray; with an Abstract of Their Proceedings (London: Unknown, 1768), 35–35 (‘Lucasian’ and ‘Provision’).

49. Meeting of the Trustees in Palace Court, 29 June 1732, in Baine, ed., Creating Georgia, 114 (‘eighty’); Matthias Mawson, A Sermon Preached before the Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; at their Anniversary Meeting in the Parish-Church of St. Mary-Le-Bow, On Friday, February 18, 1742–3 (London: J. Roberts, 1743), 25 (‘Labours’); Dr. Spencer’s Account, 1693–1929, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC02/B/146 (‘Governor’).

50. Charles Eden to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 8 October 1714, in Robert J. Cain, ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina, Volume X: The Church of England in North Carolina: Documents, 1699–1741 (Raleigh: Division of Archives and History, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, 1999), 186 (‘Tedious’); Chapter Book 3, 1709–1752’, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/chapter-book-3.pdf, accessed 30 March 2022 (‘£250’).

51. A Proposal, 1725, in Alexander Campbell Fraser, ed., The Works of George Berkeley, Formerly Bishop of Cloyne. Collected and Edited with Prefaces and Annotations, vol. 3 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1871), 229 (‘reservoir’ and ‘purging’); List of Subscriptions for the Bermuda Scheme, 1724, Correspondence of Bishop Berkeley, 1710–1828, BL, Add MS 39311, f. 63 (‘aided’); Tom Jones, George Berkeley: A Philosophical Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2021), 150 (‘Whitehall’) and 353 (‘Parliament’).

52. Glasson, Mastering Christianity, 20 (‘establish’); Gerbner, Christian Slavery, 132 (‘SOCIETY’ and ‘mark’); 23 January 1712, Barbados Journal, vol. 1, BOD, X/14 (‘keeping up’); 23 May 1716, ibid. (‘purged’); 23 January 1712, ibid. (‘Dawes’ and ‘chair’); 9 October 1713 and 19 February 1719, ibid. (‘Gooch’); 9 October 1713, ibid. (‘Gatford’); 18 August 1710, ibid. (‘Moore’); Joseph Roper, A Sermon Preach’d at the Anniversary Meeting of the Sons of Clergy, in the Cathedral-Church of St. Paul, on the 9th of December, 1725 (London: Jonah Bowyer, 1725), 27 (‘exhibitions’).

53. Donations and Legacies of £100 and Upwards, from 1702 to 1839, in Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Report for the Year 1840. With the 139th Anniversary Sermon Preached Before the Society at the Cathedral Church of St. Paul (London: Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1840), 20 (‘£1,000’); Mortgage to Thomas Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury, for £1,000 of lands in St Ives at 4%, 18 May 1710, Papers relating to Archbishop Thomas Tenison’s Bequest, 1713–1723, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC10/7/3/4 (‘mortgaging’); 20 December 1745, Barbados Journal, vol 2, X/15, f. 144 (‘Mathematicks’); Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery, 126 (‘yellow fever’); Robert Forsyth Scott, Admissions to the College of St John the Evangelist in the University of Cambridge, Part III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903), 500 (‘died’). Dr Humphrey Gower, the Master of St John’s College, donated £100 to the SPG too.

54. 26 May 1716, Barbados Journal, vol. 1, BOD, X/14 (‘Barbados’); Williams, Capitalism and Slavery, 42 (‘civil property’); Hilary M. Carey, God’s Empire: Religion and Colonialism in the British World, c. 1801–1908 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 253 (‘East India Company’); James B. Bell, A War of Religion: Dissenters, Anglicans, and the American Revolution (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 63 (‘proposal’); Thomas Sherlock, The Lord Bishop of Bangor’s Defence of His Assertion, Viz. (London: J. Pemberton, 1718), title (‘Example’), 19 (‘Countrey’), and 19–20 (‘Negroes’).

55. ‘William Fleetwood’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=fleetwood&suro=w&fir=william&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=999, accessed 2 December 2021 (‘fellow’); William Fleetwood to Charles Lockyer, 2 April 1722, William Fleetwood Manuscript Documents, HL, Volume 5, Part 5 (‘South Sea’); William Fleetwood, A Sermon Preached before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts At the Parish-Church of St. Mary-le-Bow, On Friday the 16th of February, Being the Day of their Anniversary Meeting (London: J. Downing, 1711), 16–17 (‘losing’, ‘imagin’d’, and ‘English-Men’). Charles Lockyer was an accountant for the South Sea Company.

56. Glasson, Mastering Christianity, 44 (‘ethnic’); Stephen R. Haynes, Noah’s Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 23 (‘nakedness’ and ‘lowest’); Richard Kidder, A Commentary on the Five Books of Moses: With a Dissertation Concerning the Author or Writer of the said Books; and a General Argument to each of them, vol. 1 (London: J. Keptinstall, 1694), 46 (‘servant’); Simon Patrick, A Commentary Upon the First Book of Moses, Called Genesis (London: Chiswell, 1695), 203 (‘Four Sons’); Thomas Newton, Dissertations on the Prophecies, Which Have Remarkably Been Fulfilled, and At This Time Are Fulfilling in the World, vol. 1 (Perth: R. Morison Junior, 1790), 13 (‘peopled’) and 9 (‘servant of servants’); Adam Elliot, ‘A Narrative of My Travails, Captivity and Escape from Sallee, in the Kingdom of Fez’, in Adam Elliot, A Modest Vindication of Titus Oates the Salamanca-Doctor from Perjury: or an Essay to Demonstrate Him only Forsworn in several Instances (London: Joseph Hindmarsh, 1682) and Simon Ockley, An Account of South-West Barbary: Containing What is most Remarkable in the Territories of the King of Fez and Morocco (London: J. Bowyer and H. Clements, 1713) (‘captivity’). See also Lisa Voigt, Writing Captivity in the Early Modern Atlantic: Circulations of Knowledge and Authority in the Iberian and English Imperial Worlds (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).

57. ‘David Humphreys’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=humphreys&suro=w&fir=david&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 2 December 2021 (‘fellow’); David Humphreys, An Historical Account of the Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (London: Joseph Downing, 1730), 232–235 (‘Pagan’, ‘Planters’, and ‘souls’) and 241–242 (‘most guilty’); Jill Lepore, ‘The Tightening Vise: Slavery and Freedom in British New York’, in Ira Berlin and Leslie M. Harris, eds., Slavery in New York (New York: The New Press, 2005), 78–79 (‘1712’); John K. Thornton, ‘African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion’, The American Historical Review 96 (October 1991), 1112–1113 (‘sporadic’).

58. ‘Anthony Ellys’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=ellys&suro=w&fir=anthony&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=9999, accessed 2 December 2021 (‘pensioner’); Anthony Ellys, A Sermon Preached before the Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts at their Anniversary Meeting in the Parish Church of St. Mary-le-Bow, On Friday February 23, 1759 (London: E. Owen and T. Harrison, 1754), 30–31 (‘advantage’, ‘obstinacy’, and ‘guards’).

59. James R. Hertzler, ‘Slavery in the Yearly Sermons Before the Georgia Trustees’, The Georgia Historical Quarterly 59 (1975), 119 (‘supported those colonists’); George Harvest, A Sermon Preach’d before the Honourable Trustees for Establishing the Colony of Georgia in America, 1749, in George Harvest, A Collection of Sermons, Preached Occasionally on Various Subjects (London: J. and R. Tonson and S. Draper, 1754), 292 (‘depopulate’), 299 (‘auxiliaries’), 300 (‘Gibraltar’), 301–302 (‘Fitness’ and ‘industrious’), and 310–311 (‘profane’, ‘released’, ‘free’, ‘abhors’, and ‘agree with me’); Ben Marsh, Georgia’s Frontier Women: Female Fortunes in a Southern Colony (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007), 56–57 (‘£28,125’) Harvest was also listed as a subscriber of twelve copies to the third edition of John Wright’s The American Negotiator, or the Various Currencies of the British Colonies in America (London: J. Smith, 1765), xlvii. For contemporary concerns around the ‘dispeopling’ of the British metropole, see also P. J. Marshall, The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America c. 1750–1783 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 323.

60. Watson W. Jennison, Cultivating Rice: The Expansion of Slavery in Georgia, 1750–1860 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2012), 19–20 (‘population’); Thomas Francklin, A Sermon Preached before the Honourable Trustees for Establishing the colony of Georgia in America, the Associates of the late Rev. Dr. Bray (London: R. Francklin, 1750), 13 (‘Force’, ‘Blood’, ‘design’d’, and ‘Equality’) and 13–14 (‘Necessity’, ‘Prudence’, ‘unhappy’, and ‘Happiness’).

61. Boston Gazette, 25 July and 1 August 1737 (‘slave trader’); John C. Shields, The American Aeneas: Classical Origins of the American Self (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 2001), 79 (‘Jesus’); East Apthorp, The Constitution of a Christian Church Illustrated in a Sermon at the Opening of Christ-Church, in Cambridge on Thursday 15 October, MDCCLXI (Boston: Green and Russell, 1761), title page (‘late Fellow’); Douglass Shand-Tucci and Richard Cheek, Harvard University: An Architectural Tour (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001), 104 (‘mansion’); East Apthorp, Discourses on Prophecy: Read in the Chapel of Lincoln’s Inn, at the Lecture Founded by the Right Reverend William Warburton Late Lord Bishop of Gloucester, vol. 2 (London: J. F. and C. Rivington, 1786), 340 (‘prelate’ and ‘freed’).

1. Peile, Biographical Register of Christ’s College, vol. 1, 611–612 (‘matriculating’); Mark Govier, ‘The Royal Society, Slavery and the Island of Jamaica: 1660–1700’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 53 (May 1999), 203–217 (‘investments’). Townes and his work are discussed in Stearns, Science in the British Colonies, 215–217; Cristina Malcolmson, Studies of Skin Color in the Early Royal Society: Boyle, Cavendish, Swift (London: Taylor & Francis, 2016), 66–69; and Sarah Irving, Natural Science and the Origins of the British Empire (London: Taylor & Francis. 2015), 99–100. For Lister, see Anna Marie Roos, Web of Nature: Martin Lister (1639–1712), the First Arachnologist (Leiden: Brill, 2011).

2. Thomas Townes to Martin Lister, ca. May 1674, in Anna Marie Roos, ed., The Correspondence of Dr. Martin Lister (1639–1712). Volume One: 1662–1677 (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2015), 700 (‘goe’ and ‘commands’); Thomas Townes to Martin Lister, 26 March 1675, ibid., 782 (‘bottome’).

3. Ibid. (‘Sunne’ and ‘Latitude’).

4. Martin Lister to Henry Oldenburg, 27 June 1675, ibid., 795 (‘correspondent’); Martin Lister to John Ray, July 1675, ibid., 800 (‘Blood’); Henry Oldenburg to Martin Lister, 10 June 1676, ibid., 841 (‘Ingenious’, ‘florid’, and ‘observation’); Martin Lister to Henry Oldenburg, 9 July 1676, ibid., 851 (‘Experiment’). In 1682 and 1696, the Society debated the nature of Black skin, with several correspondents agreeing that Blackness was innate. (Govier, ‘Royal Society’, 215.) See also John G. T. Anderson, Deep Things Out of Darkness: A History of Natural History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 52–72.

5. The imperial history of collecting is discussed in Margot C. Finn, ‘Material Turns in British History: III. Collecting: Colonial Bombay, Basra, Baghdad and the Enlightenment Museum’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 30 (2020), 1–28; Dan Hicks, The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution (London: Pluto Press, 2021); and Maya Jasanoff, Edge of Empire: Conquest and Collecting in the East, 1750–1850 (London: Harper Perennial, 2006). For the imperial origins of natural history, see Leslie B. Cormack, Charting an Empire: Geography at the English Universities, 1580–1620 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Richard Drayton, Nature’s Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the “Improvement” of the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000); Londa Schiebinger, Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004); Justin Roberts, Slavery and the Enlightenment in the British Atlantic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Tracy-Ann Smith et al., Slavery and the Natural World (London: Natural History Museum, 2007); April G. Shelford, A Caribbean Enlightenment: Intellectual Life in the British and French Colonial Worlds, 1750–1792 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023); and Kathleen S. Murphy, Captivity’s Collections: Science, Natural History, and the British Transatlantic Slave Trade (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023).

6. Kathleen S. Murphy, ‘Collecting Slave Traders: James Petiver, Natural History, and the British Slave Trade’, WMQ 70 (October 2013), 638 (‘expanded’).

7. James Delbourgo, Collecting the World: Hans Sloane and the Origins of the British Museum (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019), 191 (‘manati’); Robert Willis and John Willis Clark, The Architectural History of the University of Cambridge and of the Colleges of Cambridge and Eton, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1886), 210–212 (‘£100’ and ‘built’); Catherine Ansorge, ‘The Revd George Lewis: His Life and Collection’, Journal of the History of Collections 32 (March 2020), 143–156 (‘Lewis’).

8. Inventory of Weapons, Utensils, and Manufactures of various kinds collected by Captn. Cook of His Majesty’s ship the Endeavour in the Years 1768, 1769, 1770 & 1771, October 1771, Library records: donors, c. 1680, WL, Add. MS a/106 (‘Weapons’ and ‘inventory’); An Inventory of all the Rarities & besides Books in Trinity, ibid. (‘magick’ and ‘Quiver’); Edwin D. Rose, ‘Empire and the Theology of Nature in the Cambridge Botanic Garden, 1760–1825’, Journal of British Studies 62 (October 2023), 1016 (‘1660s’); Thomas Salmon, The Foreigner’s Companion Through the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, and the Adjacent Counties (London: William Owen, 1748), 67 (‘Coffee-shrub’ and ‘Torch-thistle’).

9. ‘Science’, in Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which The Words are deduced from their Originals, Explained in their Different Meanings, and Authorized by the Names of the Writers in whose Works they are found (Dublin: W. G. Jones, 1768) (‘Knowledge’); Sara Landreth, ‘Science in the Long Eighteenth Century’, in Frans De Bruyn, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Eighteenth-Century Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 58–97 (‘defined’).

10. Dr Woodward’s Will with Remarks by Mr. Peck and Election of Mr. Green, 7 May 1778, Archives of the Department of Geology and the Woodwardian and Sedgwick Museums, 1731–1987, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/GEOL 1/1 (‘ready money’ and ‘£100’). For Woodward’s life and times, see V. A. Eyles, ‘John Woodward, F. R. S.’, Nature 205 (1965), 868–870; Ken McNamara, ‘Dr Woodward’s 350-year legacy’, Geology Today 31 (September–October 2015), 181–186; Roy Porter, ‘John Woodward; “A Droll Sort of Philosopher”’, Geological Magazine 116 (1978), 335–417; Roy Porter, The Making of Geology: Earth Science in Britain, 1660–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977); and Joseph M. Levine, Dr. Woodward’s Shield: History, Science, and Satire in Augustan England (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1977).

11. John Woodward, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6452, 735 (‘stock’); Dr. John Woodward, Transfer Book, May–June 1720, TNA, T70/199/1, 33 (‘Royal African’); John Woodward, The Natural History of the Earth, Illustrated, Inlarged, and Defended (London: Thomas Edlin, 1726), 106 (‘Stature’) and 107 (‘Nothing’).

12. William Deringer, ‘Compound Interest Corrected: The Imaginative Mathematics of the Financial Future in Early Modern England’, Osiris 33 (2018), 109–110 (‘owed’ and ‘logarithms’); William Deringer, Calculated Values: Finance, Politics, and the Quantitative Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018) (‘pique’); Odlyzko, ‘Newton’s Financial Misadventures’, 29–59 (‘Newton’s South Sea holdings’); Miscellaneous Papers on Compound Interest, c.1700 – c.1749, The Macclesfield Collection, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.9597/8/1 (‘compound’); Amount of an Annuity at Compound Interest, c.1700 – c.1749, ibid., GBR/0012/MS Add.9597/8/2; Questions on Annuities, c.1700 – c.1750, ibid., 3 (‘annuities’). See John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989); Anne L. Murphy, The Origins of English Financial Markets: Investment and Speculation before the South Sea Bubble (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); and Carl Wennerlind, Casualties of Credit: The English Financial Revolution, 1620–1720 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2011).

13. Woodward, Natural History, pref. (‘promiscuous’); John Woodward, Brief instructions for making observations in all parts of the world as also, for collecting, preserving, and sending over natural things: being an attempt to settle an universal correspondence for the advancement of knowledge both natural and civil (London: Richard Wilkin, 1696), 16 (‘Insects’).

14. John Woodward, An Attempt Towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England; In A Catalogue of the English Fossils in the Collection of J. Woodward, M. D., vol. 1 (London: F. Fayram, 1729), 112 (‘Coasts’ and ‘Shores’); ibid., vol. 2, 5 (‘Shell’). For enslaved diving, see Molly A. Warsh, ‘Enslaved Pearl Divers in the Sixteenth Century Caribbean’, Slavery and Abolition 31 (2010), 345–362; Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, & Desire, 143; and Kathleen M. Brown, Foul Bodies: Cleanliness in Early America (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2009), 68. The collection was included in John Woodward, An Attempt towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England, 2 vols. (London, 1728–1729).

15. Delbourgo, Collecting the World, 97 (‘bestow’); Woodward, Natural History, vol. 1, 29 (‘Lump’); Niccolò Guicciardini, The Development of Newtonian Calculus in Britain, 1700–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 16 (‘Hayes’); Woodward, Collection, 30 (‘Ounces’). Dr John Arbuthnot, Transfer Book, 2 May to 28 June 1720, TNA, T70/199/1, 41 (‘Arbuthnot’); Dr. John Freind, ibid., 23 (‘Freind’); J. S. Rowlinson, ‘John Freind: Physician, Chemist, Jacobite, and Friend of Voltaire’s’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 61 (May 2007), 119 (‘Readership’); Dr Thomas Pellett, Transfer Book, 2 May to 28 June 1720, TNA, T70/199/1, 10 (‘Pellett’); Dr William King, ibid., 99 (‘King’). Charles Hayes published a letter in support of the RAC: The Importance of effectually supporting the Royal African Company of England impartially consider’d;…in a Letter to a Member of the House of Commons (London: M. Cooper, 1744).

16. Woodward, Collection, 24 (‘Vernon’); George F. Frick et al., ‘Botanical Explorations and Discoveries in Colonial Maryland, 1688 to 1753’, Huntia: A Journal of Botanical History, 7 (1987), 23 (‘befriended’); Christopher Wordsworth, Scholae Academica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1877), 207 (‘improve’); Lindsay O’Neill, The Opened Letter: Networking in the Early Modern British World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015), 58–59 (‘sent to Virginia’).

17. Conyers Middleton’s certificate for sale of South Sea Stock, 29 September 1721, Records of and relating to academic officers, 1620–2014, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/O.XIV 262 (‘sale document’); John A. Dussinger, ‘Middleton, Conyers’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-18669;jsessionid=F4144B18598FDED6BC9179ABA2AD3EB4, accessed 29 June 2022 (‘fossils’); Conyers Middleton, A Letter from Rome, shewing an exact conformity between popery and paganism, with the Prefatory Discourse, in answer to the objections of a popish writer, and a Postscript, in which Mr. Warburton’s opinion concerning the paganism of Rome is considered, in idem., The Miscellaneous Works Of the late Reverend and Learned Conyers Middleton, D.D. Principal Librarian of the University of Cambridge, vol. 5 (London: R. Manby and H. S. Cox, 1755), 111 (‘black’); Vaughan and Vaughan, ‘Before Othello’, 19–44 (‘sinfulness’); Isaac Barrow, ‘Of Submission to the Divine Will’, in John Tillotson, ed., The Works of Isaac Barrow, D. D., vol. 3 (London: J. R., 1692), 38 (‘Negros’).

18. Gascoigne, Cambridge, 179 (‘twenty-eight’); Reverend William Cole’s Account of Mason, in John Willis Clark and Thomas McKenny Hughes, eds., The Life and Letters of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Prebendary of Norwich, Woodwardian Professor of Geology, 1818–1873, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1890), 190 (‘unhewn’); William Smith, A Natural History of Nevis, and the Rest of the English Leeward Charibee Islands in America with Many Other Observations on Nature and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), i–ii (‘Worthy’, ‘spiritual’, and ‘encouraged’), 3–4 (‘cockles’ and ‘dogwood’), and 10–11 (‘Oxford’).

19. Frank N. Egerton, ed., ‘Richard Bradley’s Relationship with Sir Hans Sloane’, Notes and Records: The Royal Society Journal of the History of Science 25 (June 1970), 60–61.

20. Richard Bradley to Sir Hans Sloane, circa 1727, in Egerton, ed., ‘Bradley’s Relationship with Sloane’, 67 (‘money’ and ‘Jamaica’); Richard Bradley, A Philosophical Account of Works of Nature. Endeavouring to set forth the several Gradations Remarkable in the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Parts of the Creation Tending to the Composition of a Scale of Life (London: W. Mears, 1721), 75 (‘Flying Lizard’ and ‘plates’), 153–154 (‘Lanthorn’ and ‘rareities’), and 86 (‘Rat’); Richard Bradley, The History of Succulent Plants Containing, The Aloes, Ficoids (or Fig-Marygolds) Torch-Thistles, Melon-Thistles, and such others as are capable of an Hortus Siccus (London: J. Hodges, 1739), 3 (‘growing’).

21. Richard Bradley, A Survey of the Ancient Husbandry and Gardening, Collected from Cato, Varro, Columella, Virgil (London: B. Motte, 1725), pref. (‘Physick’, ‘Governors’, ‘Tun’, ‘Coffee’, ‘Plantations’, and ‘Use’); Richard Walker, A Short Account of the late Donation of a Botanic Garden to the University of Cambridge By the Revd Dr. Walker, Vice-Master of Trinity College; with Rules and Orders for the Government of it (Cambridge: J. Bentham, 1763), 1 (‘Goodness’); Michel-Rolph Trouillot, ‘Motion in the System: Coffee, Color, and Slavery in Eighteenth-Century Saint-Domingue’, Review 5 (Winter 1982), 332 (‘quadrupled’). For the coffee economy in North America, see also Michelle Craig McDonald, ‘The Chance of the Moment: Coffee and the New West Indies Commodities Trade’, WMQ 62 (July 2005), 441–472.

22. Richard Bradley, The Weekly Miscellany For the Improvement of Husbandry, Trade, Arts, and Sciences, 12 September 1727 (‘pleased’, ‘good Number’, ‘Plantations’, ‘encouraged’, ‘fresher’, and ‘parcel’); Richard Bradley, A Short Historical Account of Coffee; Containing the most remarkable Observations of the greatest Men in Europe concerning it, from the first Knowledge of it down to this present Time; with a more accurate Description of the Coffee-Tree than has yet been Publish’d (London: E. Matthews, 1715), 21 (‘medicinal’) and 24 (‘mercantile’); Richard Bradley, Kalendarium Universale: or, the Gardiner’s Universal Calendar. (London: L James Lacy, 1726), 175–176 (‘raising’). For Bradley’s interest in coffee’s medicinal properties, see also his The Virtue and Use of Coffee, with regard to the plague, and other infectious distempers: containing the most remarkable observations of the greatest men in Europe concerning it (London: E. Matthews and W. Mears, 1721).

23. Will of Claude Fonnereau, Merchant of Saint Antholin, City of London, Prerogative Court of Canterbury and related Probate Jurisdictions: Will Registers, TNA, PROB 11/701/472 (‘EIC’); South Sea Company, A List of the Names of the Corporation of the Governor and Company of Merchants of Great Britain Trading to the South-Seas, and other Parts of America, and for Encouraging the Fishery (London: John Barber, 1720), 6 (‘SSC’); Murphy, Captivity’s Collections, 94–95 (‘surgeon’) and 97 (‘fourteen’); Rose, ‘Theology of Nature’, 1022 (‘Indigenous and enslaved’); John Martyn to William Houstoun, 22 May 1731, George Cornelius Gorham, ed., Memoirs of John Martyn, F.R.S., and of Thomas Martyn, B.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professors of Botany in the University of Cambridge (London: Hatchard and Son, 1830), 46–47 (‘jealousy’); Raymond Phineas Stearns, ‘Colonial Fellows of the Royal Society of London, 1661–1788’, WMQ 3 (April 1946), 234–235 (‘Search’ and ‘Skill’d’); John Martyn, Historia Plantarum Rariorum (London: Richard Reily, 1728), 9 and 22 (‘Barbados’), 27 and 39 (‘Dominica’ and ‘Jamaica’).

24. ‘Went away from his Master’, The Grub-Street Journal, 25 May 1732 (‘Named’, ‘heard’, ‘Livery’, ‘Strong’, and ‘English’); Newman, Freedom Seekers, 35 (‘commodify’); ‘Advertisements and Notices’, London Gazette, 15 July 1732 (‘Cheapside’); Monica L. Miller, Slaves to Fashion: Black Dandyism and the Styling of Black Diasporic Identity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 49 (‘garish outfits’).

25. Stuart Max Walters, The Shaping of Cambridge Botany: A Short History of Whole-Plant Botany in Cambridge from the Time of Ray into the Present Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 39 (‘numerous works’) and 42–43 (‘assisted as Curator’ and ‘teaching’); Gorham, ed., Memoirs of John Martyn, F.R.S., and of Thomas Martyn, 139 (‘advantageous’).

26. Thomas Martyn, The Gardener’s and Botanist’s Dictionary; Containing the Best and Newest Methods of Cultivating and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower Garden, and Nursery; or Performing the Practical Parts of Agriculture; of Managing Vineyards, and of Propagating all Sorts of Timber Trees, vol. 1 (London: C. and J. Rivington, 1807), unpaginated.

27. Lorri Glover, Eliza Lucas Pinckney: An Independent Woman in the Age of Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2020), 58–63 (‘perfecting’); Julien Poydras to Mr. Marre, 6 August 1795, Julien Poydras Letterbook, LHC, RG 98, ff. 5–6 (‘London’ and ‘insurance’).

28. Martyn, The Gardener’s and Botanist’s Dictionary, vol. 1, unpaginated.

29. Derek Howse, Nevil Maskelyne: The Seaman’s Astronomer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 1–26.

30. Dalrymple, Anarchy, 133–134 (‘fortune’); Lady Clive to Edmund Maskelyne, 16 May 1766, Letters Sent by Lady Clive, Vol. 1, 1762–1805, CUL, GBR.0180/RGO 218/9/1 (‘instrument’ and ‘December’); Nevil Maskelyne to Edmund Maskelyne, 15 May 1766, Letters to Edmund Maskelyne, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 35/32 (‘India stock’); ‘John Pate Rose (ne Pate)’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146660545, accessed 10 July 2023 (‘Mount Hindmost’).

31. Howse, Maskelyne, 26–39 (‘observe’); 3 July 1760, Minutes of a Meeting of the Council of the Royal Society, RS, CMO/4/105 (‘Members’, ‘Settlements’, ‘Factories’, and ‘tools’); 2 June 1761, Confirmed minutes of the Board of Longitude, 1737–1779, Papers of the Board of Longitude, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 14/5 (‘Jamaica’); Nevil Maskelyne to Edmund Maskelyne, 8 September 1763, Letters to Edmund Maskelyne, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 35/30 (‘Portugal specie’ and ‘8 months’). Two years later, the Reverend John Mitchell, a Queens’ fellow, ‘applied at the East India House in relation to the Transit of Venus over the Sun’. (Anonymous note about the Rev Mr Mitchell, 1762, Miscellaneous Manuscripts by, about or belonging to the Fellows of the Royal Society, RS, MM/10/150.)

32. Log Book of Voyage to Barbados, 1761–1764, Papers of Nevil Maskelyne, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 4/321 (‘15 Guns’); Nevil Maskelyne to Edmund Maskelyne, 29 December 1763, Letters to Edmund Maskelyne, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 35/31 (‘arrival’, ‘civilities’, ‘Constitution’, ‘somewhat’, ‘Sugar’, and ‘Garden’); 6 January 1764, Astronomical Observations made at the Island of Barbados, 1763–1764, Maskelyne Papers, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 4/323 (‘workmen’); Nevil Maskelyne, ‘Astronomical Observations made at the Island of Barbadoes’, in Philosophical Transactions, Giving some Account of the Present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours, of the Ingenious, in many Considerable Parts of the World, vol. 44 (London: L. Davis and C. Reymers, 1765), 389 (‘Fellow’); 13 February 1805, A List of Nevil Maskelyne’s Books, Maskelyne Papers, CUL, GBR/0180/RGO 218/4 (‘Observations’); Jesse Foot Observations Principally Upon the Speech of Mr. Wilberforce, on his Motion in the House of Commons, the 30^th of May, 1804, for the Abolition of the Slave Trade (London: T. Becket, 1805), 6 (‘accusations’).

33. ‘Nathaniel Lloyd’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=lloyd&suro=w&fir=nathaniel&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 30 January 2023 (‘educated’); H. Helmholz, The Profession of Ecclesiastical Lawyers: An Historical Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 18 (‘masculine’); Law Quibbles: Or, a Treatise of the Evasions, Tricks, Turns and Quibbles, Commonly Used in the Profession of the Law, to the Prejudice of Clients and Others (London, 1724), 4 (‘Laudable’); A General Description of All the Trades, Digested in Alphabetical Order: By which Parents, Guardians, and Trustees, may, with greater Ease and Certainty, make choice of Trades agreeable to the Capacity, Education, Inclination, Strength, and Fortune of the Youth under their Care (London: E. and R. Nutt, 1724), 6 (‘worthy’); Ignoramus: Or, The English Lawyer – A Comedy (London: W. Feales, 1736), 39 (‘stinking’); David Lemmings, Professors of the Law: Barristers and English Legal Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 111(‘attractive’ and ‘national’).

34. Jacob Youde William Lloyd, The History of the Princes, the Lords Marcher, and the Ancient Nobility of Powys Fadog: And the Ancient Lords of Arwystli, Cedewen, and Meirionydd, vol. 6 (London: Whiting & Co., 1887), 348 (‘seat’); Will of Sir Richard Lloyd, Dean of the Arches, Records of the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, TNA, PROB 11/384/51 (‘inheritance’); Lemmings, Professors of the Law, 112 (‘Blackstone’); John H. Langbein et al., History of the Common Law: The Development of Anglo-American Legal Institutions (Frederick, MD: Aspen Publishing, 2009), 194–195 (‘specialist’ and ‘employment’).

35. Charles Crawley, Trinity Hall: The History of a Cambridge College, 1350–1975 (Cambridge: Trinity Hall, 2007), 74–77 (‘£63’); A Lease of ye Common Rooms in Drs Commons made to Dr Henchman and Dr Pinfold in trust, 1728, Leases of Doctors Commons, 1671–1765, CUL, Add.9266/DC6 (‘Henchman’); Humphrey Henchman, Call of 5 per cent., 1722, Books Concerning Stock, TNA, T70/180 (‘£3,500’); Paul C. Nigol, ‘Discipline, Discretion and Control: The Private Justice System of the Hudson’s Bay Company in Rupert’s Land, 1670–1770’ (PhD dissertation, University of Calgary, 2001), 51 (‘Penfold’); Michael Lobban, ‘English Approaches to International Law in the Nineteenth Century’, in Matthew Craven et al., eds., Time, History and International Law (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2007), 67 (‘462’); Brian P. Levack, The Civil Lawyers in England, 1603–1641: A Political Study (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), 26 (‘statesmanship’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd’s opinion on the boundaries of the British seas, William Mildmay Papers, 1748–1756, vol. 1, WLC, M-231 (‘sovereignty’).

36. David Waddell, ‘Charles Davenant and the East India Company’, Economica 23 (August 1956), 261–264 (‘Davenant’ and ‘£1,000’); Charles Davenant, An Essay on the East-India Trade (London: Unknown, 1696), 8 (‘Wealth’); Charles Davenant, Reflections Upon the Constitution and Management of the Trade to Africa, Through the Whole Course and Progress thereof, from the Beginning of the last Century, to this Time (London: John Morphew, 1709), 2 (‘Planters’). For Davenant and the RAC, see Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 49–50.

37. Lord Treasurer Godolphin to Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, 27 June 1710, The Twenty-Eighth Annual Report of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records (London: George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1867), 483 (‘advocate Generall’); Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke, to Sir Charles Hedges and Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, 17 March 1712, in Adrian Lashmore-Davies, ed., The Unpublished Letters of Henry St John, First Viscount Bolingbroke, vol. 2 (London: Routledge, 2013), 136 (‘negotiating’); John Shovlin, Trading with the Enemy: Britain, France, and the 18th-Century Quest for a Peaceful World Order (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021), 49 (‘nullified’); Alan L. Karras, Smuggling: Contraband and Corruption in World History (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010), 54–70 (‘illegal trade’); Manuscript from the Papers of Sir Nathaniel Lloyd on the Rules and Directions appointed by his Majesty in Council to be observed by the High Court of Admiralty in the Adjudication of Prizes, in Frederic Thomas Pratt, ed., Law of Contraband of War: With a Selection of Cases from the Papers of the Right Hon. Sir George Lee, LL.D. Formerly Dean of the Arches, Etc. Etc. Etc. (London: William G. Benning, 1856), 250 (‘plantations’).

38. Kate Hodgson, ‘Franco-Irish Saint-Domingue: Family Networks, Trans-colonial Diasporas’, Caribbean Quarterly 64 (November 2018), 434–451 (‘families’ and ‘Stapleton’); Report to the queen from Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, concerning the petition of Hughes O’Kelly, 13 March 1712, State Papers Domestic, Queen Anne, TNA, SP 34/34/62, ff. 199–201 (‘late Brother’, ‘judgment’, and ‘Practice’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd to the Council of Trade and Plantations, 2 August 1715, in Cecil Headlam, ed., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, American and West Indies, August, 1714 – December, 1715, Preserved in the Public Record Office (London: H. M. Stationary Office, 1928), 254 (‘negroes’ and ‘fled’).

39. David Wilson, Suppressing Piracy in the Eighteenth Century: Pirates, Merchants and British Imperial Authority in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 2021), 155 (‘attacked’); Trial of Pirates, 1720, in R. G. Marsden, ed., Documents Relating to Law and Custom of the Sea, vol. 1 (Union, NJ: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 1999), 253–254 (‘within’ and ‘pyrates’).

40. A Petition of the Royal Africa Company of England concerning an allegation of piracy against Lieutenant James Massey [Mattey], 19 January 1723, State Papers Domestic, George I, TNA, SP 35/41/16 (‘mutinous’ and ‘fairly’); Order in Council for a Commission to the captain of H. M. S. Kinsale and others to try pirates, 1725, in Marsden, ed., Law and Custom of the Sea, vol. 1, 262 (‘coast’). See also M. J. Prichard and D. E. C. Yale, ed., Hale and Fleetwood on Admiralty Jurisdiction (London: Selden Society, 1993), 363–365. In Lloyd’s time, the Admiralty Court was in decline and the Common law had ‘absorbed much of this business’. (Warren Swain, The Law of Contract, 1670–1870 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015], 21–22.) For the Massey incident, see also J. M. Gray, A History of the Gambia, intro. by Sir Thomas Southorn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940), 173–175.

41. Weekly Journal or Saturday’s Post, 8 March 1718 (‘committed’); Weekly Journal or British Gazetteer, 29 October 1720 (‘Squirrel’); Samuel G. Margolin, ‘Lawlessness on the Maritime Frontier of the Greater Chesapeake, 1650–1750’ (PhD dissertation, College of William and Mary, 1992), 354 (‘Whorwood’); Weekly Journal or British Gazetteer, 29 October 1720 (‘Ship’, ‘dispose’, and ‘Criminal’); Mark Knights, Trust and Distrust: Corruption in Office in Britain and Its Empire, 1600–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 329–330 (‘controversial’).

42. William Gerbing Wood, The Annual Ships of the South Sea Company, 1711–1736 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1938), 4 (‘tons’); Case of implementation of Treaty of England with Spain, 1713 and 1717, re. tonnage and unloading of yearly ship to the West Indies, sent by South Sea Company, argued by Nathaniel Lloyd, 10 August 1722, NLJ, MS 1369 (‘measurement’, ‘Frauds’, and ‘Convention’). See also Jean O. McLachlan, Trade and Peace with Old Spain, 1667–1750: A Study of the Influence of Commerce on Anglo-Spanish Diplomacy in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940), 24.

43. Dr Nathaniel Lloyd and George Cooke, List of Holders of East India Company Stock, April 1707, Stocks and Bonds of the East India Company, BL, IOR/H/3, 173 (‘£230’); East India Company, A list of the names of all the adventurers in the stock of the honourable the East-India-Company, the 12th day of April, 1684 whereof those marked with a * are not capable (by their adventure) to be chosen committees (London: A. Baldwin, 1699) (‘1684’); Dame Elizabeth Lloyd and Sir Richard Lloyd decd., List of Holders of East India Company Stock, 18 April 1691, Stocks and Bonds of the East India Company, BL, IOR/H/2, 54; (‘1691’); Dame Elizabeth Lloyd and Sir Richard Lloyd decd., April 1699, Ibid., 90 (‘holdings’); South Sea Company, A List of the Names, 9 (‘separate holdings’); A List of the Names of the Corporation of the Governor and Company of Merchants of Great Britain Trading to the South-Seas, and other Parts of America, and for Encouraging the Fishery (London: Edward Symon, 1723), 9 and Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, Doctors Commons, Old South Sea Stock Ledgers, BE, AC27/6445, 571, and Sir Nathaniel Lloyd and Jacob Sawbridge, ibid. (‘£6,000’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd and Henry Wright, ibid., 572 (‘£12,080’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, Doctors Commons, ibid., 6465, 367 and Sir Nathaniel Lloyd and Henry Wright, ibid. (‘£9,158’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd’s Charity, Further Report of the Commissioners Appointed in Pursuance of Two Several Acts of Parliament; The one, made and passed in the 58th Year of His late Majesty, c. 91, intituled, ‘An Act for appointing Commissioners to inquire concerning Charities in England, for the Education of the Poor’ (London: House of Commons, 1831), 434 (’£600’). Both of Lloyd’s parents stopped appearing in the stock ledgers after 1703, and Dame Elizabeth died on 16 August 1731. She was ‘handsomely buried at St Bennet’s Paul’s-Wharf’. (London Evening Post, 21 August 1731). At Lloyd’s death, the South Sea securities amounted to £600 16s. in stock and £2,623 16s. in annuities. He also appeared on lists of stockholders in both 1735 and 1747. See A List of the Name of the Corporation of the Governor and Company of Merchants of Great Britain, Trading to the South-Seas, and other Parts of America, and for Encouraging the Fishery (London: South Sea Company, 1747), 6.

44. A List of the Names of the Adventurers of the Royal African Company of England (London: Royal African Company, 1720), 3 (‘appeared’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, Transfer Book, May-June 1720, TNA, T70/199/2, 42 (‘£3,000’); E. I. Carlyle and S. J. Skedd, ‘Smith, Joseph (1670–1756)’, ODNB, www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-25870?rskey=16RO4S&result=1, accessed 12 May 2022 (‘£1,000’); Reverend Dr Joseph Smith, Transfer Book, May–June 1720, TNA, T70/199/2, 23 (‘500’); His Grace the Duke of Chandos, ibid., 1, 1 (‘30,000’); John Kerr, Scottish Education: School and University: From Early Times to 1908 with an Addendum 1908–1913 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), 222–223 (‘chair’); Benefactors to the new building, n.d., Senate House, 1673–1899, University registry guard books, 1327–2000, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/CUR 46 (‘£500’); Gary S. Shea, ‘(Re)financing the Slave Trade with the Royal African Company in the Boom Markets of 1720’, Centre for Dynamic Macroeconomic Analysis Working Paper Series, CDMA11/14 (October 2011), 6 (‘reinvigorate’) and 43 (‘quadrupling’); Nathaniel Day attorney to Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, Transfer Book, 1721–1722, TNA, T70/203, 98–99 (‘dump’).

45. Peregrine Horden and Simon J. D. Green, All Soul’s under the Ancien Régime: Politics, Learning, and the Arts, c. 1600–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 142 (‘Codrington’ and ‘£10,000’); Will of Christopher Codrington, 8 February 1711, Records of the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, TNA, PROB 20/540 (‘guineas’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd to Warden Gardiner, 3 March 1710, ASC, CTM, 352, no. 320 (‘possession’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd to Warden Gardiner, 13 September 1712, ASC, CTM, 354, no. 343 (‘Dead’); Birke Häcker, ‘A Case Note on All Souls College v. Cod[d]rington (1720)’, Journal of Comparative and International Law 76 (October 2012), 1059 (‘refusing’); 18 August 1710, Barbados Committee Papers, Papers of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, BOD, USPG X/14, vol. 1 (‘bequeathed’ and ‘counsel’); Dr Lloyd, 1709, An Account of Quarterly Payments & Benefactions to the Society, 1700–1735, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge Archive, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/C1/3 (‘SPCK’); Edward Waddington, A Sermon preached before the Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; at their Anniversary Meeting in the Parish-Church of St. Mary le Bow; on Friday the 17th of February, 1720 (London: John Downing, 1721), 67 (‘SPG’).

46. Häcker, ‘Case Note on All Souls College’, 1060, n. 52 (‘overseers’); 2 June 1714, Account Books of Codrington’s Legacy and Lloyd’s Benefaction, ASC, CTM, 416 (‘£2,300’); The General Stock, 14 April 1727, Books Concerning Stock, TNA, T70/214, 2 (‘Royal African’); Peirce Dod, Several cases in Physick: and one in particular, giving an account of a person who was inoculated for the small-pox, and had the small-pox upon the inoculation, and yet had it again (London: Royal Society, 1746) (‘dismissing’); 3 June 1715, Account Books of Codrington’s Legacy and Lloyd’s Benefaction, ASC, CTM, 416 (‘coach’); 7 February 1715, ibid. (‘name’).

47. Häcker, ‘Case Note on All Souls College’, 1058 (‘Retrieving’); The Wardens Colledge of All Souls in Oxford, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6459, 882 (‘held’); 21 November 1728, Account Books of Codrington’s Legacy and Lloyd’s Benefaction, ASC, CTM, 416 (‘£5,100’); The Wardens Fellows & Schollars of Wadham Colledge Oxon, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6452, 11 (‘Wadham’); Peirce Dodd to Stephen Niblett, 22 May 1729, Papers Concerning the Building of the College, ASC, CTM 34, 293 (‘Interest’). Dod possessed £1,000 of RAC stock. By 1725, William Baker, the Bishop of Bangor and Warden of Wadham College, had purchased £780 in annuities.

48. John Smail, ‘The Culture of Credit in Eighteenth-Century Commerce: The Textile Industry’, Enterprise & Society 4 (June 2003), 299 (‘emotive’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd to the Bursars, 1 November 1718, Papers Concerning the Building of the College, ASC, CTM, 297, no. 8 (‘Discharge’); Daily Journal, 28 October 1726 (‘resigned’); Bond of Warden and Fellows for Payment of 60l. per annum to Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, 3 March 1723, Papers Concerning the Building of the College, ASC, CTM, 297, no. 9 and Bond for Payment of 1,000l. to Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, 25 August 1729, ibid., 298, no. 14 (‘two bonds’); Sir Nathaniel Lloyd to Stephen Niblett, 19 July 1729, ibid., no. 11 (‘Creditour’ and ‘Benefaction’); John Guinness, ‘Portraits of Sir Nathaniel Lloyd’, Oxoniensa 25 (1960), 296 (‘portrait’).

49. Campbell R. Hone, The Life of Dr. John Radcliffe, 1652–1714: Benefactor of the University of Oxford (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1950), 76–77 (‘South Sea’ and ‘East India’) and 118–126 (‘worth around’); William Pittis, The History of the Present Parliament and Convocation with the Debates at large relating to the Conduct of the War abroad, the Mismanagements of the Ministry at home, and the Reasons why some Offenders are not yet Impeached (London: John Baker, 1711), 351 (‘invested’); Ivor Guest, Dr. John Radcliffe and His Trust (London: The Radcliffe Trust, 1991), 67 (‘£12,500’) and 68 (‘partly funded’); ‘Radcliffe, John (1653–1714), of Wolverton, Bucks., and Carshalton, Surr.’, The History of Parliament, www.histparl.ac.uk/volume/1690-1715/member/radcliffe-john-1653-1714#footnote1_b18puie, accessed 30 June 2022 (‘£50’); ‘Dr John Ratcliffe’, List of Holders of East India Company Stock, 16 April 1694, Stocks and Bonds of the East India Company, BL, IOR/H/2, 37 (‘Company’s stock’); Lord Finch to Charles Townshend, 25 June 1725, State Papers Domestic, George I, TNA,SP 35/56/59, f. 110 (‘Master’). Radcliffe had £3,000 in EIC stock in 1694. The trustees for Radcliffe’s estate had hoped to make windfall profits from the Bubble, which they believed would help to fund the construction in record time. The stock’s collapse, however, soon dashed their hopes of strong returns from this security.

50. Wills of Sir Nathaniel Lloyd, 29 May 1739 and 1740, Papers Concerning the Building of the College, ASC, CTM, 299, no. 4 (‘library’, ‘Regent’s Walk’, ‘£500’, and ‘Trinity’); Vivian Hubert Howard Green, The Commonwealth of Lincoln College, 1427–1977 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 400 (‘remodel’); ‘Founders & Benefactors of Lincoln College, with a birds eye view of the building’, Oxford Almanack, 1743 (‘Founders’); Crawley, Trinity Hall, 117 (‘Hall’); Dale, ed., Warren’s Book, 318–323 (‘chapel’ and ‘Oswestry’); To the Master and Fellows of Trinity Hall in Cambridge a Proposal for Repairing and Beautifying their Chapel according to the Designs approved by the said Gentleman, 10 May 1729, Building Accounts, 1727–1730, TH, GBR/1936/THAR/4/1/2/5/1 (‘extensive’); Thomas Wright and Rev. H. Longueville Jones, ed., Memorials of Cambridge: A Series of Views of the College Halls, and Public Buildings, Engraved by J. Le Keux; with Historical and Descriptive Accounts, vol. 1 (London: David Bogue, 1845), 8 (‘almost rebuilt’); Memorandum on Nathaniel Lloyd in in the College’s Account of Stock, Building Accounts, 1727–1730, TH, GBR/1936/THAR/4/1/2/5/1 (‘£2,660’); ‘Nathanael Lloyd Society’, Trinity Hall, University of Cambridge, www.trinhall.cam.ac.uk/supporters/your-impact/recognition/nathanael-lloyd-society/., accessed 12 May 2022 (‘fabric’).

51. Crawley, Trinity Hall, 120–121.

52. Blight, Yale and Slavery, 55 (‘forty’); William Wynne’s opinion concerning granting registers to ships built in America, 1785, The Liverpool Papers, BL, Add MS 38346, 54 (‘adjudicate’, ‘Plantation’, and ‘trading’).

53. Parliamentary and Judicial Appendix, No. XV, in Correspondence concerning Claims against Great Britain, Transmitted to the Senate of the United States in Answer to the Resolutions of December 4 and 10, 1867, and of May 27, 1868, vol. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Philp & Solomons, 1869), 310.

54. John Gascoigne, ‘Rutherforth, Thomas (1712–1771)’, ODNB, www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-24367, accessed 2 December 2021.

55. Names of the Adventurers, 1 (‘investor’); Thomas Rutherforth, Two Sermons Preached Before the University of Cambridge, One May XXIX: The Other June XI: MDCCXLVII (London: W. Innys, 1747), 1–2 (‘placing’).

56. Gary L. McDowell, ‘The Limits of Natural Law: Thomas Rutherforth and the American Legal Tradition’, The American Journal of Jurisprudence 37 (1992), 59 and Jack P. Greene, The Intellectual Heritage of the Constitutional Era: The Delegates’ Library (Philadelphia: Library Company of Philadelphia, 1986), 18 (‘popular’); James Madison’s List of Books for Congress, 1783, in William T. Hutchinson et al., eds., The Papers of James Madison, vol. 6 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1969), 62–115 (‘Madison’); Edmund Randolph to Thomas Jefferson, 14 May 1793, in John Catanzariti et al., eds., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 26 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 33 and Joseph Story, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, vol. 1 (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, and Company, 1833), 322 (‘American statesmen’); Thomas Rutherforth, Institutes of Natural Law: Being the substance of a Course of Lectures on Grotius de Jure Belli et Pacis Read in St. Johns College Cambridge, vol. 1 (Cambridge: J. Bentham, 1745), 475 (‘good of the child’ and ‘parent’). For early modern natural law theory, see Timothy Hochstrasser, Natural Law Theories in the Early Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Knud Haakonssen, Grotius, Pufendorf, and Modern Natural Law (Brookfield: Ashgate, 1999); and Annabel Brett, Changes of State: Nature and the Limits of the City in Early Modern Natural Law (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011).

57. Rutherforth, Institutes of Natural Law, vol. 1, 475–476 (‘Nature’, ‘judge’, ‘directed’, ‘obligation’, and ‘benefit’) and 488 (‘liberty’); Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York, NY and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1975), 311 (‘Grinstead’). For partus sequitur ventrem, see Sasha Turner, Contested Bodies: Pregnancy, Childrearing, and Slavery in Jamaica (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017); Jessica Marie Johnson, Wicked Flesh: Black Women, Intimacy, and Freedom in the Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020); Thomas D. Morris, Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619–1860 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); and Brewer, ‘Slavery, Sovereignty, and “Inheritable Blood,”’ 1049. For Jefferson and Hemings, see Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009).

58. Rutherforth, Institutes of Natural Law, vol. 1, 488–491 (‘four justifications’) and 492 (‘debt’, ‘extraordinary’, and ‘gestation’).

59. Samuel von Pufendorf, Of the Law of Nature and Nations. Eight Books (Oxford: L. Lichfield, 1703), 127 (‘jurist’); Francis Hutcheson, A System of Moral Philosophy. In Three Books, vol. 2 (London: A. Millar, 1755), 81–82 (‘posterity’ and ‘plainly’). Pufendorf’s support for natural slavery and the enslavement of Africans is discussed in Kari Saastamoinen, ‘Pufendorf on Natural Equality, Human Dignity, and Self-Esteem’, Journal of the History of Ideas 71 (January 2010), esp. 43–44. For Hutcheson, see Wylie Sypher, ‘Hutcheson and the ‘Classical’ Theory of Slavery’, The Journal of Negro History 24 (1939), 263–280; Caroline Robbins, ‘“When It Is That Colonies May Turn Independent”: An Analysis of the Environment and Politics of Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746)’, WMQ 11 (April 1954), 214–251, esp. 244; and Michal J. Rozbicki, ‘To Save Them from Themselves: Proposals to Enslave the British Poor, 1698–1755’, Slavery & Abolition 22 (2001), 29–50.

60. Thomas Gilbert, Poems on Several Occasions (London: Charles Bathurst, 1747), 121 (‘1738’) and 141 (‘Negro’); Michael H. Hoffeimer, ‘The Common Law of Edward Christian’, The Cambridge Law Journal 53 (March 1994), 140–163 (‘Edward Christian’); Edward Christian, Notes to Blackstone’s Commentaries, Which are Calculated to Answer All the Editions (Dublin: P. Byrne, 1797), 542–543 (‘barbarous’ and ‘continue’).

61. Rutherforth, Institutes of Natural Law, vol. 2, 389–390 (‘judgment’, ‘security’, and ‘authority’); David Ramsay, A Dissertation on the Manner of Acquiring the Character and Privileges of a Citizens of the United States (Charleston: Unknown, 1789), 3 (‘inhabitants’); Alan Watson, Slave Law in the Americas (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 158 (‘Ruffin’). For enslaved soldiers, see Christopher Leslie Brown and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006). Rutherforth was used as legal authority in a number of slave cases, including Mahoney vs. Ashton, May 1799, in Thomas Harris and John McHenry, eds., Maryland Reports, Being a Series of the Most Important Law Cases Argued and Determined in the General Court and Court of Appeals of the State of Maryland, From May, 1797, to the End of 1799, vol. 4 (New York: I. Riley, 1818), 300; and Thomas Aves, Case of the Slave-Child, Med: Report of the Arguments of Counsel, and of the Opinion of the Court, in the Case of Commonwealth vs. Aves (Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1836), 17.

62. William Holdsworth, A History of English Law, vol. 12 (London: Methuen & Co., Sweet and Maxwell, 1938), 644 (‘tutor’); John Taylor, Elements of the Civil Law (Cambridge: Charles Bathurst, 1755), 424 (‘impotency’), 476 (‘horses’), and 436 (‘Romans’ and ‘West India’).

63. E. Millicent Sowerby, ed., Catalogue of the Library of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1953), 404 (‘libraries’); Gilbert Francklyn, An Answer to the Rev. Mr. Clarkson’s Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, particularly the African; in a Series of Letters From a Gentleman in Jamaica, to His Friend in London: Wherein Many of the Mistakes and Misrepresentations of Mr. Clarkson are pointed out, Both with Regard to The Manner in which that Commerce is carried on in Africa, and The Treatment of the Slaves in the West Indies (London: J. Walter, 1789), 66–67 (‘proslavery’); Taylor, Elements, 435 (‘Christianity’), 410 (‘private family’), and 429 (‘no persons’ and ‘beasts’); Rev. La Roy Sunderland, Anti-Slavery Manual, Containing a Collection of Facts and Arguments on American Slavery (New York: S. W. Benedict, 1837), 39 (‘cruelties’ and ‘injustice[s]’); Earl M. Maltz, Dred Scott and the Politics of Slavery (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 106 (‘Lemmon’), 69 (‘originates’), and 95 (‘violation’). John Taylor’s Summary of the Roman Law (London: T. Payne, 1772), a redacted version of Civil Law, was included in the first White House library established during Millard Fillmore’s presidency (1850–1853). See Catherine M. Parisian, ed., The First White House Library: A History and Annotated Catalogue (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010), 317. The many uses of John Taylor’s jurisprudence are discussed in Thomas D. Morris, ‘“Villeinage… as It Existed in England, Reflects but Little Light on Our Subject”: The Problem of the “Sources” of Southern Slave Law’, The American Journal of Legal History 32 (April 1988), 95–137.

64. William Whyte, ‘The Intellectual Aristocracy Revisited’, Journal of Victorian Culture 10 (December 2011), 39.

1. Account of South Sea Stock Purchased on Behalf of George I, George II Papers, RA, GEO/MAIN/52842-52843 (‘tens of thousands’); His Royal Highness George Prince of Wales, Old South Sea Annuities Ledgers, BE, AC27/6452, f. 38 (‘owned stock’); William, Duke of Clarence, to Samuel Hawker, 1807, Daniell Papers, RA, GEO/ADD/44/10 (‘weaken’); George III to Lord North, 11 June 1779, in William Bodham Donne, ed., The Correspondence of King George the Third with Lord North From 1768 to 1783, vol. 2 (London: J. Murray, 1867), 254 (‘Jamaica’); David Armitage, ‘George III and the Law of Nations’, WMQ 79 (January 2022), 27 (‘helpless’ and ‘dominion’). The Prince of Wales, whose patronage of the arts led to the commissioning of “Rule, Britannia” and helped to popularise the Rococo style of architecture and furniture, owned £2,176 in stock at the time of the Bubble (though his personal involvement in these transactions was unrecorded). (Colley, Britons, 206.) For George III and the British Caribbean, see Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, The Men Who Lost America: British Command during the Revolutionary War and the Preservation of the Empire (New Haven, CT: Yales University Press, 2013), 35.

2. Henry Venn, The Life and a Selection from the Letters of the Late Rev. Henry Venn, M. A., Successively Vicar of Huddersfield, Yorkshire, and Rector of Yelling, Huntingdonshire, Author of ‘The Complete Duty of Man, &c. (London: John Hatchard and Son, 1839), 422 (‘circles’); ‘Henry William Coulthurst’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146634732, accessed 1 February 2023 (‘compensation’); ‘Henry William Coulthurst’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=coulthurst&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 1 February 2023 (‘tutor’); ‘At a General Meeting of the Gentlemen, Clergy, Merchants, and principal Inhabitants of the Town and Parish of Halifax, previously called by public Advertisement, The Rev. Dr Coulthurst, in the Chair’, The Leeds Intelligencer, 27 February 1792 (‘Police’, ‘Population’, and ‘Importations from Africa’).

3. Charles Farish, ‘A Summary of the consequences of the abolition of the slave-trade’, 1798, Letters, Papers, and Domestic Correspondence of George III, TNA, HO 42/42/109 (‘happy effects’, ‘half its horrors’, and ‘Master’). Farish’s petition is mentioned briefly in James Gregory, Mercy and British Culture, 1760–1960 (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2021), 225, n. 121.

4. Farish, ‘A Summary of the consequences of the abolition of the slave-trade’, 1798, Correspondence of George III, TNA, HO 42/42/109.

5. ‘Appleby Gilpin’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146632829, accessed 1 February 2023 (‘Grenada’); T. W. Thompson and Robert Woof, ed., Wordsworth’s Hawkshead (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 134, n. 1 (‘boarding lodge’); ‘To a Friend & School-fellow’, June 1784, in ibid., 316 (‘direful’); Henry Gunning, Reminiscences of the University, Town and County of Cambridge, From the Year 1780, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 94 and Wordsworth, Social Life at the English Universities, 356 (‘celibacy’); 11 October 1792, Book of Orders, 1787–1830, QC, unnumbered (‘mundane’). Enslavement was a particularly fraught issue within the Society of Friends. See, for example, Jean R. Soderlund, Quakers & Slavery: A Divided Spirit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985); Larry Gragg, The Quaker Community on Barbados: Challenging the Culture of the Planter Class (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009); Brycchan Carey, From Peace to Freedom: Quaker Rhetoric and the Birth of American Antislavery, 1657–1761 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012); and Markus Rediker, The Fearless Benjamin Lay: The Quaker Dwarf Who Became the First Revolutionary Abolitionist (London: Verso, 2017).

6. Samuel Johnson, ‘Taxation no Tyranny; An Answer to the Resolutions and Address of the American Congress’, 1775, in Samuel Johnson, Political Tracts (London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1776), 262 (‘drivers’); Thomas Harwood, Alumni Etoniensis; or, a Catalogue of the Provosts & Fellows of Eton College & King’s College, Cambridge, from the Foundation in 1443, to the Year 1797; With an Account of their Lives & Preferments, Collected from Original Mss. (Birmingham: T. Pearson, 1797), 329 (‘solemnity’); Sir William Draper, The Thoughts of a Traveller Upon Our American Disputes (London: J. Ridley, 1774), 21 (‘Proclame’); Prince Hoare, ed., Memoirs of Granville Sharp, Esq. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 188 (‘Spanish Regulations’ and ‘soften’) and xvi (‘wages’, ‘industry’, and ‘encouragement’).

7. Brown, Moral Capital, 195 (‘Hinchcliffe’); Keene, A Sermon, 22 (‘Civil’, ‘Opportunity’, ‘Vicinity’, and ‘Dependence’). See also Oldfield, Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery, 70–71.

8. Jirik, ‘Beyond Clarkson’, 2 (‘most significant’); Peckard, Piety, Benevolence, and Loyalty, recommended, 3 (‘treatment’ and ‘despotism’), 1 (‘honour’), and 4 (‘human’ and ‘complexion’). Peckard published numerous sermons, petitions, and pamphlets against the slave trade and slavery before his death in December 1797. See, for example, The Nature and Extent of Civil and Religious Liberty (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon 1783); and Justice and Mercy recommended, particularly with reference to the Slave Trade (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon, 1788). Jirik rightly argues that Peckard’s influence on the antislavery cause at Cambridge has long been underappreciated.

9. Brown, Moral Capital, 435 (‘topic’) and 229 (‘Spanish’); Micah Alpaugh, Friends of Freedom: The Rise of Social Movements in the Age of Atlantic Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 199 (‘horses’); Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament, vol. 1 (London: R. Taylor and Co., 1808), 205 (‘Anne’) and 210–212 (‘awakening’); Members’ Prizes, 1785, Registrum præmorium, 1752–1872, University scholarship awards and prizes records, 1649–2015, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/Char.I.1, f. 25 (‘Heslop’). On the Zong massacre, see Vincent Brown, The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 158–160.

10. Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment, vol. 1, 436 (‘essay’); Thomas Clarkson, An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, Particularly the African, Translated from a Latin Dissertation, which was Honoured with the First Prize in the University of Cambridge, for the Year 1785, with Additions (London: Re-Printed by Joseph Crukshank, 1786), xi–xii (‘government’, ‘traffick’, and ‘planters’).

11. Jirik, ‘Beyond Clarkson’, 2 (‘forgotten’) and 14–16 (‘radicalize’); Olaudah Equiano, ‘To the printer of the Cambridge Chronicle’, Cambridge Chronicle, 1 August 1789 (‘Gentlemen’ and ‘civility’); Peter Peckard to the Chairmen of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 26 May 1790, in Vincent Caretta, ed., Olaudah Equiano: The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings (London: Penguin, 1995), 8 (‘advertise’); Thomas Clarkson to the Reverend Thomas Jones, 9 July 1789, Business Records of Cambridgeshire Manors, CA, K132/B/1B (‘sell’); Peter Peckard, The Neglect of a Known Duty is a Sin. A Sermon Preached before the University of Cambridge on Sunday, January 31, 1790 (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon, 1790), 26 (‘yoke’). For Equiano’s life and times, see Vincent Caretta, ‘Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa? New Light on an Eighteenth-Century Question of Identity’, Slavery and Abolition 20 (1999), 96–105; and Vincent Caretta, Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man (Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 2005), xvi.

12. Everill, Not Made by Slaves, 85–86 (‘Wedgwood’); Am I Not a Man? and a Brother? With all Humility Addressed to the British Legislature (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon, 1788), 1–2 (‘Peckard’, ‘Rights’, ‘Traffick’, and ‘beast’), 7 (‘inferior’ and ‘precision’), and 13 (‘Kidneys’); Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 1788, in Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Thomas Jefferson: Writings (New York: The Library of America, 2011), 264–265 (‘white skins’). The story of the ‘white negroes’ was publicised in newspaper articles, such as ‘The History of White Negroes’, The New-Haven Gazette, and the Connecticut Magazine, 13 April 1786. For the “white negroes” and Jefferson’s discussions of race, see also Charles D. Martin, The White African American Body: A Cultural and Literary Exploration (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 22; Dain, A Hideous Monster of the Mind, 26; and Jordan, White Over Black, 250.

13. “Tyro,” ‘For the Cambridge Chronicle on the Slave Trade Occasioned by the late sermon preached by P. Peckard D.D.’, Cambridge Chronicle, 1 March 1788 (‘Sons’, ‘Arrest’, and ‘patriot’); J. M. [signed from Magdalene College], ‘For the Cambridge Chronicle. Occasioned by Dr. Peckard’s sermon on the Slave Trade’, ibid., March 1788 (‘Moore’ and ‘groans’).

14. Amy Garnai, ‘An Exile on the Coast: Robert Merry’s Transatlantic Journey, 1796–1798’, The Review of English Studies 64 (February 2013), 90 (‘Merry’); Gresdna Ann Doty, The Career of Mrs. Anne Brunton Merry in the American Theatre (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), 35 (‘Hudson’s Bay Company’); ‘Della Crusca’ [Robert Merry], ‘For the Cambridge Chronicle. The Slaves. An Elegy.’, Cambridge Chronicle, 8 March 1788 (‘Stalks’ and ‘TEEMING’); ‘Sir John Willes’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146644091, accessed 6 February 2023 (‘maternal grandfather’).

15. A List of the Society, Instituted in 1787, For the Purpose of effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (London: Unknown, 1787) (‘entire section of donors’); Jirik, ‘Beyond Clarkson’, 9 (‘£161’) and 10 (‘six per cent’).

16. Special Committee on 22 November 1787, Fair Minute Book of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1787–1788, BL, Add Ms 21254, f. 20 (‘Frend’) and 25 (‘Lambert’ and ‘Questions’); Committee on 5 March 1788, Fair Minute Book of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, 1788–1790, BL, Add Ms 21255, f. 3 (‘Coulthurst’) and 53 (‘Jones’); Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment, vol. 1, 462 (‘unhappy slaves’); Gascoigne, Cambridge, 226 (‘reformist’ and ‘student’); A Speech on the Character and Memory of King William the Third, in Rev. Robert Tweddell, ed., Remains of John Tweddell, Late Fellow of Trinity-College Cambridge Being a Selection of his Correspondence a Republication of his Prolusiones Juveniles an Appendix Containing Some Account of the Author’s Collections Mss. Drawings &c. (London: J. Mawman, 1816), 110 (‘english’, ‘legalized’, and ‘sweets’).

17. Festo. St. Michaelis 1787 to Festum Annunc. 1788 and Festo Annunc. 1792 to Festum St. Michaelis 1792, College Bursar Book, 1792–1810, GCC, GC/BUR/F/88 (‘donations to end the slave trade’); 15 January 1789, Master/Registry Gesta, 1784–1811, GCC, GC/GOV/03/01/07 (‘Poor’); 13 April 1796, ibid (‘relief’); Disbursements for the Year ended at Michaelmas 1726, Dr Spencer’s Account, 1693–1929, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC02/B/146 (‘Eastern’); Disbursements for the Year ended at Michaelmas 1759, ibid. (‘British army’); Disbursements to Michaelmas 1793, ibid. (‘emigrant’); Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 420 (‘£7,000’).

18. Vincent Caretta, ‘Olaudah Equiano: African British Abolitionist and Founder of the African American Slave Narrative’, in Audrey Fisch, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the African American Slave Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 55 (‘number and status’); Christopher Wright, The Irresistible Glory and Everlasting Freedom; or, Religious Liberty, Exempt from Slavery. Being an Entire New Work (Birmingham: Mr. Brown, 1787), title page (‘omitted’ and ‘speculate’); James Plumptre, Four Discourses on Subjects Relating to the Amusement of the Stage: Preached at St. Mary’s Church, Cambridge, on Sunday September 25, and Sunday October 2, 1808 (Cambridge: Francis Hodson, 1809), 41 (‘public mind’); Rev. Thomas Harwood, The Noble Slave: A Tragedy (Bury St Edmunds: J. Rackham, 1788), list of subscribers (‘subscribed’), title page (‘University College’ and ‘noble slave’), and 87 (‘laws’, ‘encroach’, and ‘rights of man’).

19. 15 December 1796, Diary of the Reverend Romaine Hervey, MC, F/OMP/IV/VII (‘House of Commons’); ‘Thomas Truebody Thomason’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=thomason&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=999, accessed 13 February 2023 (‘East India’); Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 162 (‘163 votes’).

20. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ‘A Greek Prize Ode on the Slave Trade’, 1791, in Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Poetical Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan and Company, 1880), 26–27 (‘publickly’, ‘evil’, and ‘groans’); Legh Richmond, Cum vincamur in omni Munere, sola Deos æquat Clementia nobis, 1790, Tripos verses and lists, 1768–1802, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/Exam.L.3 (‘labours’). Thomason was an opponent of the slave trade, writing in 1800 as a “Late Fellow of Queens’ College” of his hopes that the ‘disgrace of our age and nation’ would end. (Rev. Thomas Truebody Thomason, An Essay Tending to Shew that the Christian Religion Has in its Effects been Favourable to Human Happiness [Cambridge: J. Burghes, 1800], 44). The treatise won the Norrisian Prize for an essay on Christian doctrine.

21. Jane Webster, ‘Collecting the cabinet of freedom: the parliamentary history of Thomas Clarkson’s chest’, Slavery & Abolition 38 (December 2016), 135–154 (‘visualise’); Coleridge, ‘Lecture on the Slave Trade’, 16 June 1795, in ibid, Coleridge, vol. 1, 233 (‘Jesus College’), 235 (‘artificial’), 236 (‘useful’), 238 (‘savage’, ‘nursery’, and ‘shadows’), and 251 (‘rebelling’).

22. Farish, ‘Reverie on a Benguelinha or Angola Linnet, which was caught in Africa and carried successively to Brazil, to Botany-bay, to England, twice to the West-Indies, & finally to England again’, 1798, Correspondence of George III, TNA, HO 42/42/109. For the “negral,” see Richard Brookes, The Natural History of Birds: With the Method of Bringing Up and Managing those of the Singing Kind, vol. 2 (London: J. Newberry, 1763), 280.

23. Andrew Burnaby, Travels Through the Middle Settlements in North-America (Dublin: R. Marchbank, 1775), 199 (‘cruel’); William Eddis, Letters from America, Historical and Descriptive; Comprising Occurrences from 1769, to 1777, Inclusive (London: C. Dilly, 1792), list of subscribers (‘Hinchliffe’), 64 (‘scarce’), and 65 (‘white inhabitants’).

24. William Smyth to Dr James Currie, 2 April 1792, Letters of William Smyth to Dr Currie, LRO, 920 CUR/46 (‘Intention’ and ‘retreat’); The Debate on a Motion for the Abolition of the Slave-Trade, in the House of Commons, on Monday and Tuesday April 18 and 19, 1791, Report in Detail (London: W. Woodfall, 1791), 49 (‘Providence’).

25. Kenneth Morgan, ‘Liverpool’s Dominance in the British Slave Trade, 1740–1807’, in Richardson et al, Liverpool, 15 (‘£2.6 million’); K. J. Allison, ed., A History of the County of York East Riding: Volume 1, the City of Kingston Upon Hull (London: Victoria County History, 1969), 175 (‘tobacco’); Berg and Hudson, Capitalism, unpaginated eBook edition (‘per cent’).

26. Gilbert Wakefield, Memoirs of the Life of Gilbert Wakefield, B. A. Late Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge (London: E. Hodson, 1792), 176–177 (‘mart’, ‘head-quarters’, ‘aggravating’, ‘immoral’, ‘privateering’, ‘thunder’, and ‘agitated’) and 179 (‘knockt’ and ‘sea’).

27. Thomas Clarke, A Sermon on the Injustice of the Slave Trade, Preached February 12th, 1792, in the Parish Church of the Holy Trinity, in Kingston-Upon-Hull (Hull: J. Ferraby, 1792), title (‘Late-Fellow’), 6 (‘Cause’), 8 (‘Test’ and ‘Humanity’), 11 (‘Labourers’ and ‘moistened’), 17 (‘Seeds’ and ‘rapid’), 18 (‘glaring’, ‘impressment’, and ‘INDIA’), and 19 (‘domestic’); Denver Brunsman, The Evil Necessity: British Naval Impressment in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 6 (‘250,000’).

28. M. J. Smith, ‘Benjamin Flower and the “Cambridge Intelligencer,” 1793–1803’, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society 16 (2018), 417 (‘syndicated’); ‘To the Editor of the Cambridge Intelligencer’, Cambridge Intelligencer, 17 November 1791 (‘Wakefield’); ‘Slave Trade’, ibid., July 1796 (‘SALE’); ‘The Willing Slave’, ibid., 20 February 1796 (‘AFRICAN’ and ‘Gold’); ‘Voluntary Contributions’, ibid., 17 March 1798 (‘traffick’); Eve Tavor Bannet, Eighteenth-Century Manners of Reading: Print Culture and Popular Instruction in the Anglophone Atlantic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 46 (‘school-dames’). Flower was also listed as a subscriber to Captain John Gabriel Stedman’s Narrative, of a five years’ expedition, against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam, in Guiana, on the Wild Coast of South America; from the Year 1772, to 1777: elucidating the History of that Country, and describing its Productions, 2 vols. (London: J. J. Johnson, 1796).

29. William Paley, The Works of William Paley, D. D. Archdeacon of Carlisle. With a Life and Portrait of the Author. In Five Volumes, vol. 1 (Edinburgh: John Fairbairn, 1825), vi (‘lectures’); Niall O’Flaherty, Utilitarianism in the Age of Enlightenment: The Moral and Political Thought of William Paley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 17 (‘Christian utilitarian’); William Paley, The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy, vol. 1 (London: R. Faulder, 1785), 268–270 (‘obligation’, ‘proportioned’, and ‘brutality’) and 272 (‘emancipation’ and ‘diffusion’). Paley’s arguments were influential in the United States too. (O’Brien, Conjectures of Order, vol. 1, 961.) For another contemporaneous statement questioning the relative cost of free and enslaved labour, see Sir Joseph Banks to Thomas Coltman giving his ‘Opinions on the subject of the slave trade’, Papers from a letter book belonging to Sir Joseph Banks, BOD, MSS.Brit.Emp.r.2.

30. Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 405 (‘prominent’); George Dyer, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Robert Robinson, Late Minister of the Dissenting Congregation, in Saint Andrew’s Parish, Cambridge (London: G. G. and J. Robinson, 1796), 131–132 (‘Randall’); Robert Robinson, Slavery inconsistent with the Spirit of Christianity. A Sermon Preached at Cambridge, on Sunday, Feb. 10, 1788 (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon, 1788), 39 (‘silver’ and ‘ambition’).

31. Dyer, Robert Robinson, 193–195.

32. Roshan Allpress, British Philanthropy in the Globalizing World: Entrepreneurs and Evangelicals, 1756–1840 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023), 105 (‘ideally positioned’); Leonard W. Cowie, ‘Venn, Henry (1725–1797)’, ODNB, www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-28184;jsessionid=69C84D0C06C333025B9667856ACB310D, accessed 9 January 2021 (‘Royal Navy’); Anne Stott, Wilberforce: Family and Friends (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 9–17 (‘Cambridge’)

33. Allpress, British Philanthropy, 106 (‘credibility’ and ‘political influence’); Mary Milner, ed., The Life of Isaac Milner, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Carlisle, President of Queen’s College, and Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge; comprising a portion of his correspondence and other writings hitherto unpublished (London: John W. Parker, 1842), 15–16 (‘Milner’) and 75 (‘pivotal’); Hugh Evan Hopkins, Charles Simeon of Cambridge (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2012), 198 (‘African Institution’); William Jowett, Mercy for Africa. A Sermon Preached in Favour of the Endowment Fund for the Bishopric of Sierra Leone. With an Appendix (London: Seeleys, 1851), 9 (‘bodily’ and ‘spiritual’).

34. Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, ‘The Formation of a Commercial Lobby: The West India Interest, British Colonial Policy and the American Revolution’, HJ 40 (March 1997), 49 (‘chief broker’) and 78 (‘amenability’, ‘case’, ‘direction’, ‘too much’, and ‘annual budget’); Roger Anstey, The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition, 1760–1810 (London: Humanities Press, 1975), 288 (‘work’).

35. Stephen Fuller to the Committee of Correspondence, 6 February 1788, in W. M. McCahill, ed., The Correspondence of Stephen Fuller, 1788–1795: Jamaica, the West India Interest at Westminster and the Campaign to Preserve the Slave Trade (Chichester: West Sussex, 2014), 71 (‘Rights of Humanity’ and ‘impossibility’).

36. O’Shaughnessy, Men Who Lost America, 314–317 (‘Saintes’); Stephen Fuller to Lord Rodney, 12 March 1788, McCahill, ed., Correspondence of Stephen Fuller, 77 (‘Plantation Office’); Paper received from Lord Rodney, March 1788, in ibid., 77–78 (‘prominent’). For the proslavery argument concerning the poorer conditions of white labourers relative to the enslaved, see also ‘An Old Planter’, Letter VII, Letters to a Young Planter; Or, Observations on the Management of a Sugar-Plantation. To which is Added, The Planter’s Kalendar (London: Strachan, 1785), 36–37; and Martin, Essay Upon Plantership, xviii. For a stinging rebuke against this viewpoint, see Sharp, Just Limitation of Slavery, 36–38.

37. Srividhya Swaminathan, ‘Developing the West Indian Proslavery Position after the Somerset Decision’, Slavery and Abolition 24 (December 2003), 56 (‘tyrannic’ and ‘savage’); Tise, Proslavery, 82–83 (‘Bastille’); Frank O’Gorman, ‘The Paine Burnings of 1792–1793’, Past & Present 193 (November 2006), 120 (‘412’); Clive Emsley, ‘An Aspect of Pitt’s “Terror”: Prosecutions for Sedition during the 1790s’, Social History 6 (May 1981), 155–156 (‘twelve’).

38. Gunning, Reminiscences, vol. 1, 277 (‘burst’, ‘Masters’, and ‘Laudable’), 278 (‘Republicans’, ‘every’, ‘rogue’ and ‘exhibited’), and 279 (‘Paine’ and ‘America’); Henry Crabb Robinson to Thomas Robinson, 7 May 1852, in Thomas Saddler, ed., Diary, Reminiscences, and Correspondence of Henry Crabb Robinson, Barrister-at-Law, F.S.A., vol. 3 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1869), 401 (‘Frend’); Frida Knight, University Rebel: The Life of William Frend (1757–1841) (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1971), 140 (‘LIBERTY’ and ‘EQUALITY’) and 141 (‘Coleridge’); William Frend, A Sequel to the Account of the Proceedings in the University of Cambridge, Against the Author of a Pamphlet, Entitled Peace and Union; Containing the Application to the Court of King’s Bench, a Review of Similar Cases in the University, and Reflections on the Impolicy of Religious Persecution, and the Importance of Free Enquiry (London: G. and J. Robinson, 1795), ix (‘violence’); George Dyer, Slavery and Famine, Punishments for Edition; or, an Account of the Miseries and Starvation at Botany Bay (London: J. Ridgway, 1794), 41 (‘FAMINE’).

39. Stephen Fuller to the Committee of Correspondence, 2 April 1788, in McCahill, ed., Fuller, 80.

40. Stephen Fuller, The New Act of Assembly of the Island of Jamaica, Intitled, An Act to repeal an Act, intitled, ‘An Act to repeal several Acts, and Clauses of Acts, respecting Slaves, and for the better Order and Government of Slaves, and for other Purposes’ (London: B. White and Son, 1789), vii (‘philanthropy’); Robert Bisset, A Defence of the Slave Trade on the Grounds of Humanity, Policy and Justice (London: J. Hales, 1804), 56 (‘theophilanthropic’ and ‘revolutionary’). For amelioration, see, for instance, Robert E. Luster, The Amelioration of the Slaves in the British Empire (New York: New York University Press, 1995); Christa Dierksheide, Amelioration and Empire: Progress and Slavery in the Plantation Americas (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014); Trevor Burnard and Kit Candlin, ‘Sir John Gladstone and the Debate over the Amelioration of Slavery in the British West Indies in the 1820s’, Journal of British Studies 57 (October 2018), 760–782; and Carolina Quarrier Spence, ‘Ameliorating Empire: Slavery and Protection in the British Colonies, 1783–1865’ (PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 2014). See also Stephen Fuller, Notes on the Two Reports from the Committee of the Honourable House of Assembly of Jamaica, Appointed To examine into, and to report to the House, the Allegations and Charges contained in the several Petitions which have been presented to the British House of Commons, on the Subject of the Slave Trade, and the Treatment of the Negroes, &c. &c. &c. (London: J. Philips 1789).

41. John Henry Thomas and John Farquhar Fraser, eds., The Reports of Sir Edward Coke, Knt. In Thirteen Parts: A New Edition, vol. 4, parts 7–8 (London: Joseph Butterworth and Son, 1826), 373 (‘eyes and soul’); Stephen Fuller to Lord Hawkesbury, 27 June 1788, in McCahill, ed., Fuller, 92 (‘Petitions to Parliament’); Lord Hawkesbury to Stephen Fuller, 28 June 1788, ibid., 92 (‘Formality’).

42. Stephen Fuller to the Committee of Correspondence, 6 May 1789, ibid., 120 (‘University Gentlemen’); Glasson, ‘“Baptism Doth Not Bestow Freedom”’, 292 (‘legality of African slavery’). The Right Rev. the Hon. James Yorke was a Doctor of Divinity and the Bishop of Ely from 1781 to 1808. In October 1952, the Right Rev. H. E. Wynn, the Lord Bishop of Ely, deposited Yorke’s book collection in the University Library.

43. Miriam Elizabeth Burstein, ‘A Forgotten Novel: John Riland’s Memoirs of a West-India Planter (1827)’, Slavery & Abolition 41 (July 2020), 582 (‘creole’ and ‘abolitionist’) and 583 (‘Hall’ and ‘1800’); ‘The Gipsies’, 1837, in Oxford Prize Poems: Being a Collection of Such English Poems as Have at Various Times Obtained Prizes in the University of Oxford (Oxford: J. H. Parker, 1839), 337 (‘poems’); Thomas Coke, A History of the West Indies, Containing the Natural, Civil, and Ecclesiastical History of each Island: with an Account of the Missions Instituted in Those Islands, from the Commencement of their Civilization; But more Especially of the Missions which have been Established in that Archipelago By the Society Late in Connexion with the Rev. John Wesley, vol. 1 (London: T. Blanshard, 1808) (‘histories’); George Barnett Smith, The Life of the Right Honourable William Ewart Gladstone, M.P., D.C.L., &c. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1880), 26 (‘public debates’); Clara Reeve, The Progress of Romance, through Times, Countries, and Manners… In a Course of Evening Conversations, vol. 1 (Colchester: W. Keymer, 1785), 111 (‘real life’); Rev. John Riland, Memoirs of a West-India Planter. Published from an Original MS. With a Preface and Additional Details (London: Hamilton, Adams & Co., 1827), 35 (‘domestic’ and ‘special’), 37 (‘massa’), and 37–38 (‘middle’).

44. Ibid., 38 (‘Cambridge’), 39 (‘fanatical’ and ‘sanctioned’), and 43 (‘commercial’, ‘status’, and ‘intolerable’). For novels as historical sources in British imperial history, see Maya Jasanoff, The Dawn Watch: Joseph Conrad in a Global World (New York: Penguin, 2017).

45. George Randolph, An Inquiry into the Medicinal Virtues of Bristol Waters (Oxford: M. Cooper, 1745), title page (‘Medicinal’); ‘Francis Randolph’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=randolph&suro=w&fir=francis&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 1 February 2023 (‘upbringing’); Francis Randolph, A Letter to the Right Honourable William Pitt, Chancellor of the Exchequer, &c. &c. (London: T. Cadell, 1798), title (‘Late’), 5–6 (‘Mode and Manner’), and 8 (‘Bitterness of Servitude’).

46. Ibid., 43–46.

47. Francis Randolph (or “Britannicus”), A Letter to the Right Hon. William Pitt, Containing some New Arguments against the Abolition of the Slave Trade (London: A. Macpherson, 1804), 2 (‘political existence’), 5 (‘improve Africa’), 9 (‘father of the faithful’), 11 (‘barbarity or refinement’), 13 (‘indebted’), 15 (‘Slave Commerce’), and 30 (‘pockets’). Randolph is identified as “Britannicus” in William Cushing, Initials and Pseudonyms: A Dictionary of Literary Disguises (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1888), 20.

48. ‘Samuel Hallifax’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=hallifax&suro=w&fir=samuel&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 10 July 2023 (‘fellowship’); Samuel Hallifax, An Analysis of the Roman Civil Law; in which A Comparison is, occasionally, made between the Roman Laws and those of England: Being the Heads of a Course of Lectures, Publickly Read in the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: J. Archdeacon, 1779), 9 (‘Revival’); Samuel Hallifax, A Sermon Preached before the Incorporated Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; at their Anniversary Meeting in the Parish Church of St. Mary-Le-Bow On Friday February 20, 1789 (London: T. Harrison and S. Brooke, 1789), xxvi–xxvii (‘civilizing’ and ‘propose’).

49. Ibid., xxxiv (‘Mitigation’, ‘due regard’, ‘annulled’, and ‘future’), xxix (‘sober’, ‘incompatible’, and ‘affirm’), xxxi (‘Roman’), and xxxiii (‘virtual’).

50. ‘Marriott, Sir James’, History of Parliament, https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1790-1820/member/marriott-sir-james-1730-1803, accessed 1 July 2022 (‘numerous positions’); ‘Observations by the King’s Advocate, Sir James Marriott, on enforcing residence at a living in Barbadoes, in the Case of the Rev. Mr. Barnard’, 1764, in William Forsyth, ed., Cases and Opinions on Constitutional Law, and Various Points of English Jurisprudence, Digested from Official Documents and other Sources (London: Stevens & Haynes, 1869), 44–45 (‘residence requirement’); ‘America a Part of Kent’, Percy’s Anecdotes: Original and Select (London: T. Boys, 1822), 149 (‘knights’); Sir James Marriott, ‘Plan of a Code of Laws for the Province of Quebec’, 1774, in Adam Shortt and Arthur G. Doughty, eds., Documents Relating to the Constitutional History of Canada, 1759–1791: Second and Revised Edition (Ottawa: J. de L. Taché, 1918), 445–483 (‘Quebec’).

51. ‘Trial of Captain Kimber’, Sheffield Public Advertiser, 15 June 1792 (‘Recovery’); Isaac Cruikshank, ‘The abolition of the slave trade’, 1792, British Museum, www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1868-0808-6179, accessed 21 April 2022 (‘Dealers’ and ‘modesty’).

52. The Trial of Captain John Kimber, for the Murder of Two Female Negro Slaves, on Board the Recovery, African Slave Ship (London: C. Stalker, 1792), 36 (‘William IV’); The Whole of the Proceedings and Trial of Captain John Kimber for the wilful murder of a Negro girl: held at the Old Bailey on the 7th and 8th of June 1792 by virtue of his Majesty’s commission; to which is added, an extract from Mr. Wilberforce’s speech, which gave rise to the trial; also the charges to the juries; being the most complete edition published (Edinburgh: John Elder, 1792), 9 (‘government’, ‘security’, ‘absolute’, and ‘passions’); Nicholas Rogers, Murder on the Middle Passage: The Trial of John Kimber (London: Boydell and Brewer, 2020), 98 (‘propertied’) and 118–119 (‘misleading’).

53. R. v. George Hindmarsh, 168 E.R. 387 (1792) (‘league’); Will of Sir James Marriott, Prerogative Court of Canterbury, NA, PROB 11/1391/29 (‘Governor’ and ‘stone’); Will of Jacob Ricketts, Planter of Westmoreland, Island of Jamaica, West Indies, ibid., 826/325 (‘free Mulatto’).

54. Members of Parliament with West India Connections, 1780 to 1796, in McCahill, ed., Fuller, 229–233 (‘twenty’); ‘Gilbert Francklyn’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146632169, accessed 30 September 2021 (‘partner’); Gilbert Francklyn, An Answer to the Rev. Mr. Clarkson’s Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, particularly the African (London: Logographic Press, 1789), 2 (‘ocular evidence’) and 236–237 (‘education’).

55. Stephen Fuller to John Grant, 3 December 1788, in McCahill, ed., Fuller, 102–103.

56. Stephen Fuller to the Committee of Correspondence, 10 February 1789, ibid., 112 (‘twelve hundred’); Stephen Fuller to the Committee of Correspondence, 31 March 1789, ibid., 118–119 (‘Parliament’); Stephen Fuller to Henry Dundas, 30 October 1791, in ibid., 170 (‘struck’ and ‘seeds’); Herbert Marsh, The History of the Politicks of Great Britain and France from the Time of the Conference at Pillnitz, to the Declaration of War against Great Britain, vol. 1 (London: John Stockdale, 1800), 43 (‘insurrection’ and ‘dreadful’) and 44 (‘state’); Stuart Semmel, ‘British Radicals and “Legitimacy”: Napoleon in the Mirror of History’, Past & Present 167 (May 2000), 148 (‘coal mine owner’); William Burdon, The Life and Character of Bonaparte, From his Birth to the 15th of August, 1804 (Newcastle-Upon-Tyne: K. Anderson, 1804), 179 (‘nobly’, ‘black’, ‘bred’, and ‘enlightened’) and 185 (‘tyrant’ and ‘disgrace’).

57. Stephen Fuller to the Committee of Correspondence, 4 May 1791, in McCahill, ed., Fuller, 165 (‘solidity’); Stephen Fuller, The Colonization of the Island of Jamaica (London: Unknown, 1792), 1 (‘active industry’) and 15 (‘statistics’).

58. Stephen Fuller’s Copy of Robert Norris, Memoirs of the Reign of Bossa Ahadee, King of Dahomey, An Inland Country of Guiney. To which are Added, the Author’s Journey To Abomey, the Capital; and a Short Account Of the African Slave Trade (London: W. Lowndes, 1799), CUL, 7500.c.17, 151 (‘12,000’), 157 (‘Negroland’), 161 (‘26,500’), and 182 (‘three million’).

59. Brown, Moral Capital, 294 (‘Londoners’); The Public Advertiser, 5 January 1786 (‘Quartern’); ibid., 27 January 1786 (‘Persons’).

60. Granville Sharp, Free English Territory in Africa (London: Unknown, 1790) (‘Inspired’); C. B. Wadstrom, An Essay on Colonization, Particularly Applied to the Western Coast of Africa, with Some Free Thoughts on Cultivation and Commerce; Also Brief Descriptions of the Colonies Already Formed, or Attempted, in Africa, including those of Sierra Leona and Bulama (London: Darton and Harvey, 1794), 344–353 (‘these men included’); Everill, Abolition and Empire, 9 (‘desire’ and ‘promoted’).

61. Wallace Brown, ‘The Black Loyalists in Sierra Leone’, in John W. Pulis, ed., Moving On: Black Loyalists in the Afro-Atlantic World (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2013), 131, n. 21 (‘1,190’); Richard Anderson, ‘Abolition’s Adolescence: Apprenticeship as “Liberation” in Sierra Leone, 1808–1848’, The English Historical Review 117 (June 2022), 763–764 (’99,000’, ‘age’, and ‘redemptions’), 768 (‘trained’), and 773 (‘twenty’ and ‘outlaw’); Harold Nuttall Tomlins, A Digest of the Criminal Statute Law of England, vol. 2 (London: A. Strahan, 1819), 937 (‘Term’); Gareth Atkins, Converting Britannia: Evangelicals and British Public Life, 1770–1840 (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 2019), 164–165 (‘Thompson’). There is some dispute over the numbers. Thomas Clarkson provided the accepted figure of 1,190, but Thomas Winterbottom mentioned 1,196 in his An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, vol. 1 (London: C. Whittingham, 1803), 275. For the colonisation of Sierra Leone, see John Peterson, Province of Freedom: A History of Sierra Leone, 1787–1870 (London: Faber and Faber, 1969); Everill, Abolition and Empire; Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors; Richard Peter Anderson, Abolition in Sierra Leone: Re-building Lives and Identities in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020); and Emma Christopher, Freedom in White and Black: A Lost Story of the Illegal Slave Trade and Its Global Legacy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2018). See also Maeve Ryan, ‘“A moral millstone”?: British Humanitarian Governance and the Policy of Liberated African Apprenticeship, 1808–1848’, Slavery & Abolition 37 (January 2016), 399–422. For apprenticeship in a transatlantic context, see Jake Christopher Richards, ‘Anti-Slave-Trade Law, “Liberated Africans” and the State in the South Atlantic World, c. 1839–1852’, Past & Present 241 (November 2018), 179–219.

62. Captain Philip Beaver, African Memoranda: Relative to an Attempt to Establish a British Settlement on the Island of Bulama, On the Western Coast of Africa, in the year 1792 (London: C. and R. Baldwin, 1805), 164 (‘275’); Brown, Moral Capital, 272 (‘Postlethwayt’ and ‘humane’); Memorandum of Agreement, and Constitution of Government, for a Colony About to Be Established on or Near the Island of Bulama. In Africa. As Engrossed and Signed on the Ninth Day of March, 1792 (London: Unknown, 1792), Papers of the Bulama Association, CUL, GBR/0115/RCS/RCMS 113/15, 7–8 (‘sixty pounds’); ‘List of the Original Subscribers to the Association Formed in 1791, for Cultivating the Island of Bulama’, in Wadstrom, Essay on Colonization, 359–361 (‘alumni and officials’); Kalle Kananoja, Healing Knowledge in Atlantic Africa: Medical Encounters, 1500–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 113 (‘collections’); Tim Soriano, ‘“What Rascals!” Perceptions of Free Labor in the Bulama Settlement, 1792–1793’, African Economic History 49 (November 2021), 173–191 (‘colonial reality’).

63. List of Members of the Association, Association for Promoting the Discovery of Interior Parts of Africa: Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7086. The initial list of subscribers who contributed at least fifty guineas did not include Comings, Winne, or Renouard. They were inducted as members in, respectively, the meetings of 20 March 1799, 18 June 1800, and 15 June 1829. Comings was listed as ‘of Trinity College, Cambridge’.

64. Cormack, Charting an Empire, 55–57 (‘centuries-long’) and 246 (‘His Pilgrimage’); Samuel Purchas, Purchase His Pilgrimage (London: William Stansby, 1613), 76 (‘fittest’); Griffith Hughes, The Natural History of Barbados (London: Unknown, 1750), list of subscribers (‘Library’) and 17 (‘little better’); ‘Salmon, Thomas (1679–1767)’, in Lee, ed., DNB, vol. 17, 697 (‘coffeehouse’); Daniel Waterland, Advice to a Young Student (London: John Crownfield, 1730), 31 (‘recommended to undergraduates’).

65. Thomas Salmon, Modern History: or, the Present State of All Nations, vol. 3 (London: Bettesworth and Hitch, 1739), 43 (‘Young’ and ‘profit’) and 51 (‘jumped’, ‘cruel’, ‘Planters’, and ‘much better’); Vincent Woodward, The Delectable Negro: Human Consumption and Homoeroticism within U.S. Slave Culture, ed. by Justin A. Joyce and Dwight A. McBride (New York: New York University Press, 2014), 31 (‘Narrative’).

66. Aims of the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, Association Papers, Add. 7085, 4 (‘blank’) and 5 (‘fund’); Jeremy Black, Geographies of an Imperial Power: The British World, 1688–1815 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2018), 20 (‘Houghton’); 25 May 1793, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7087, 9 (‘lucrative’ and ‘European’); 6 March 1796, ibid., Add.7085 (‘Million’, ‘East Indies’, and ‘Mercantile’); 31 March 1794, ibid. (‘Fort’); 25 May 1799, ibid., Add.7087 (‘ignorant’, ‘assert’, and ‘Rival’).

67. Barry Boubacar, Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 62 and 66 (‘five hundred’); 5 July 1790, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7085 (‘Negro Nations’); Sparks, Where the Negroes Are Masters, 17 (‘conduits’); 6 March 1796, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7085 (‘free’, ‘noxious’, and ‘factory’); 4 June 1804, ibid. (‘reputation’); 31 May 1794, ibid., Add.7087 (‘Missionary’); 31 May 1806, ibid. (‘great Men’).

68. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, On the Natural Varieties of Mankind (New York: Bergman Publishers, 1969), 264–265 (‘monogenism’); 3 June 1796, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7085 (‘instruction’)

69. Ibid. (‘tutelage’); George Bancroft, Ancient Greece. From the German of Arnold H. L. Heeren (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1842), 187 (‘nobility’, ‘labors’, and ‘introduction’); E. W. Bovill, ed., Missions to the Niger, I: The Journal of Friedrich Hornemann’s Travels and The Letters of Alexander Gordon Laing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964), unpaginated eBook edition (‘Niger’).

70. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 68 (‘warlordism’), 72 (‘Hausa’), and 84–85 (‘inability’), and 88 (‘twenty’).

71. 3 June 1796, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7085 (‘Slave Trade’); Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 105 (‘gold’); 18 December 1790, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7085 (‘Dealers’ and ‘frequent’); 22 June 1804, ibid. (‘remuneration’); 2 August 1804, ibid. (‘English’); 11 August 1804, ibid. (‘conciliate’ and ‘principal’).

72. Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, Travels of M. Burckhardt in Egypt and Nubia (London: Sir Richard Phillips and Co., 1819), 3 (‘Cambridge educations’); William Otter, The Life and Remainings of the Rev. Edward Daniel Clarke, LL.D. (London: J. F. Dove, 1824), 44 (‘Jesus’) and 54 (‘balloon’); Jennifer Speake, ed., Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia, Volume One: A To F (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 144 (‘Petra’ and ‘Abu Simbel’); Jacob Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia; By the Late John Lewis Burckhardt (London: John Murray, 1819), 360 (‘merchandize’, ‘slave boy’, ‘useful’, and ‘afforded’); Jacob Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia, Comprehending an Account of those Territories in Hedjaz which the Mohammedans Regard as Sacred, vol. 1 (London: Henry Colburn, 1829), 4 (‘sell my slave’, ‘faithful’, ‘defray’, ‘possession’, and ‘equal’) and 5 (‘forty-eight’); Otter, Life and Remainings, 428 (‘faithful slave’); George Michael La Rue, ‘“My Ninth Master Was a European”: Enslaved Blacks in European Households in Egypt, 1798–1848’, in Terence Walz and Kenneth M. Cuno, eds., Race and Slavery in the Middle East: Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in Nineteenth-Century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2010), 100–101 and 114 (‘oppose’); Warwick William Wroth, ‘Clarke, Edward Daniel’, in Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, eds., DNB, vol. 10, 422 (‘two principal’); ‘The man who discovered a “lost” wonder of the world’, University of Cambridge, www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/the-man-who-discovered-a-lost-wonder-of-the-world, accessed 17 January 2023 (‘manuscripts’).

73. Jeremy Black, Europe and the World, 1650–1830 (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 17 (‘Timbuktu’ and ‘three editions’); Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior District of Africa: Performed Under the Direction and Patronage of the African Association in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797 (London: W. Bulmer and Company, 1799), 319 (‘salt water’); Folarin Shyllon, Edward Long’s Libel of Africa: The Foundations of British Racism (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholar Publishing, 2021), 101 (‘revise’) and 102 (‘tenor’ and ‘conviction’); 9 July 1831, Association Papers, CUL, GBR/0012/MS Add.7085 (‘merger’).

74. Richard Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, to William Pitt, 14 May 1800, in Richard Watson, Jr., ed., Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson, Bishop of Llandaff (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1817), 349 (‘rear’); St. George Tucker, Dissertation on Slavery: With A Proposal for the Gradual Abolition of It, in the State of Virginia (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1796), 95 (‘compensate’); Speech in the House of Lords, 1807, in Watson, Jr., ed., Life of Richard Watson, 458 (‘recompense’, ‘twenty’, and ‘reasonably’); Anstey, Slave Trade and British Abolition, 407–408 (‘France’). For Tucker’s struggle with the problem of enslavement, see also Philip Hamilton, ‘Revolutionary Principles and Family Loyalties: Slavery’s Transformation in the St. George Tucker Household of Early National Virginia’, WMQ 55 (October 1998), 531–556.

1. Petition to the two Houses of Parliament for the abolition of the slave trade, 4 July 1814 and 16 April 1823, Representatives in Parliament, 1614–1934, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/CUR 50, f. 8 (‘Chancellor’); ‘Slave Trade Felony Bill, March 1811’, Hansard, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1811/mar/05/slave-trade-felony-bill#column_233, accessed 7 July 2023 (‘contrary’ and ‘capital’); Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 285–286 (‘re-establish enslavement’).

2. Journals of the House of Lords, Beginning Anno Quinquagesimo Tertio Georgii Tertii, 1812, vol. 49 (London: H. M. Stationary Office, 1812), 1043 (‘cities’); Petition to the two Houses of Parliament, 4 July 1814 and 16 April 1823, Representatives, 1614–1934, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/CUR 50, f. 8 (‘total’, ‘forward’, ‘Foreign’, ‘regret’, ‘Settlements’, ‘Guardians’, ‘abhorrence’, ‘Sentiments’, and ‘promoting’); Denys Arthur Winstanley, Early Victorian Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955), 98 (‘on account’).

3. Petition to the two Houses of Parliament, 4 July 1814 and 16 April 1823, Representatives, 1614–1934, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/CUR 50, f. 8. (‘Sound’, ‘effectual’, Debasing’, and ‘infrequent’); T. C. Hansard, The Parliamentary Debates: Forming a Continuation of the Work Entitled ‘The Parliamentary History of England, From the Earliest Period to the Year 1803’, vol. 9 (London: T. C. Hansard, 1824), 312 (‘attack’).

4. Dumas, Proslavery Britain, 30 (‘co-founder’); Thomas Clarkson, Thoughts on the Necessity of Improving the Condition of the Slaves in the British Colonies: With a View to the Ultimate Emancipation, and on the Practicability, Safety, and the Advantages of the Latter Measure (London: Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery throughout the British Dominions, 1824), 2 (‘materially’) and 3 (‘resume’); Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire’s Slaves (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 324 (‘Everywhere People’).

5. Elizabeth Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition; Or, An Inquiry into the Shortest, Safest, and Most Effectual Means of Getting Rid of West Indian Slavery (London: Hatchard and Son, 1824), 17.

6. Coleridge, ‘Ode on the Slave Trade’, 1791, in Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Poetical Works of Coleridge, vol. 1, 27 (‘burning’); Barbara Taylor Paul-Emile, ‘Samuel Taylor Coleridge as Abolitionist’, ARIEL 5 (1974), 62 (‘Susquehanna’); Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ‘Lectures on Shakespeare and Other Dramatists’, 1812, in W. G. T. Shedd, ed., The Complete Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: With an Introductory Essay Upon His Philosophical and Theological Opinions, vol. 4 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1884), 178 (‘Moor’); Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ‘Table Talk’, 8 June 1833, ibid., vol. 6, 457 (‘condemn’ and ‘brethren’). For the cultural malleability of the epithet “Moor” and the meaning of “Moorishness” in early modern Britain, see Emily C. Bartels, Speaking of the Moor: From Alcazar to Othello (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).

7. L. G. Mitchell, Lord Melbourne, 1779–1848 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 48 (‘Charles James Fox’); Lloyd C. Sanders, ed., Lord Melbourne’s Papers: With a Preface by the Earl Cowper, K. G. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1889), 375 (‘folly’) and 376 (‘posts’ and ‘civilising’); William Lamb, Essay on the Progressive Improvement of Mankind (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1860), 15 (‘civilize’) and 16 (‘strike’); Alison Bashford and Joyce Chaplin, The New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus: Rereading the Principle of Population (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 198–199 (‘notably silent’).

8. These individuals and their respective donations and investments can be found in the subscriber lists in the Sixteenth Report of the Directors of the African Institution, Read at the Annual General Meeting, Held on the 10th Day of May, 1822 (London: Ellerton and Henderson, 1822); and Account of the Receipts & Disbursements of the Anti-Slavery Society for the Years 1823, 1824, 1825 & 1826: with a list of the subscribers (London: Bagster and Thomas, 1827). For the Rev. Venn’s involvement on the Anti-Slavery Society committee, see, for instance, the Meeting of 9 April 1823, Minute book of the Committee on Slavery, 31 January 1823 to 9 February 1825, Archive of the Anti-Slavery Society, BOD, MSS. Brit. Emp. s. 20/E2/1, f. 9.

9. The Declaration of Independence, 1 January 1804, in David Geggus, ed., The Haitian Revolution: A Documentary History (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2014), 179 (‘State of Haiti’ and ‘independent’); Christina Cecelia Davidson, ‘Mission, Migration, and Contested Authority: Building an AME Presence in Haiti in the Nineteenth Century’, in John Corrigan et al. eds., Global Faith, Worldly Power: Evangelical Internationalism and U.S. Empire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2022), 76 (‘wave’); Leslie John Griffiths, ‘A History of Methodism in Haiti, 1817–1916’ (PhD dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, 1986), 31 (‘Wilberforce’) and 33 (‘attend’ and ‘stopped’); William Woodis Harvey, Sketches of Hayti; from the Expulsion of the French, to the Death of Christophe (London: L. B. Seeley and Son, 1827), 308 (‘infidel’); The Missionary Register For MDCCCXXIV (London: R. Watts, 1824), 520 (‘mob’).

10. Charles Valentine Le Grice, Analysis of Paley’s Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (Cambridge: Benjamin Flower, 1799) (‘Paley critic’); 9 December 1823, Minute Book of Union Society, Papers of the Cambridge Union, CUL, USOC 1/1/1/1, unnumbered (‘£20’); 24 February 1824, ibid. (‘Jamaica Chronicle’); ibid., 11 (‘Voice’); 15 March 1824, ibid, 35 (‘Appeal’); 30 March 1824, ibid., 42 (‘Stephens’); 25 November 1823, ibid., unnumbered (‘Negro Slavery’); James Townley, ‘Abolition of Slavery, 1833’, JSTOR Primary Sources, www.jstor.org/stable/60227882, accessed 16 June 2023 (‘Saxon’, ‘entries’, ‘manumissions’, and ‘unhappily’). Townley drew from the Biblical commentaries of the Rev. Adam Clarke. See his The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ; containing the Text, Taken from the Most Correct Copies of the Present Authorised Translation, including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts with a Commentary and Critical Notes, vol. 2 (London: J. Butterworth & Son, 1817), I. Corinthians, 40.

11. 9 March 1824, Minute Book of Union Society, Papers of the Cambridge Union, CUL, USOC 1/1/1/1, 26–27 (‘condition’ and ‘defeated’); 8 May 1825, ibid., USOC 1/1/1/2, unnumbered (‘conduct’ and ‘negative’).

12. Report of the Proceedings of the Great Anti-Slavery Meeting, Held at the Town Hall, Birmingham, on Wednesday, October 14th, 1835 (Birmingham: B. Hudson, 1835) (‘Birmingham’); ‘The Greek Cause’, The Times, 19 December 1823 (‘Liberty’); ‘Town Meeting for the Abolition of Slavery’, Cambridge Chronicle, 26 November 1830 (‘borne’, ‘speedy’, ‘burthen’, ‘desirable’, ‘slavish’, and ‘cruelty’); The Fifth Report of the Colchester and East Essex Association, in Aid of the Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East, 10th of April, 1821; and a List of Benefactors, Subscribers, and Collectors (Colchester: W. Keymer, 1821), 4 (‘passionate’). For a recent treatment of the international reaction to the Greek Revolution, see Mark Mazower, The Greek Revolution: 1821 and the Making of Modern Europe (New York: Penguin, 2021).

13. Harvey, Sketches of Hayti, vii–viii (‘still’ and ‘knowledge’), xii (‘excesses’), 3 (‘contended’), 23 (‘waste’); 31 (‘uneducated’), and 37 (‘superior’); Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 270–271 (‘massacre’). For Harvey and Haiti, see also Karen Salt, The Unfinished Revolution: Haiti, Black Sovereignty and the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2019), 68.

14. “A Member of the University of Cambridge,” Suggestions on the Abolition of Slavery in the British Colonies; or, Slavery Gradually Starved to Death Upon a Low Diet, V: Strangulation (Cambridge: J. J. Deighton, T. Stevenson, and R. Newby, 1831), title (‘Member’), iv (‘feed’), v–vi (‘invasion’, ‘constrain’, and ‘dependence’); Everill, Not Made by Slaves, 48 (‘sixty’).

15. Ibid., 49 (‘70,000’ and ‘Barbarities’); Gunning, Reminiscences, vol. 2, 39 (‘held meetings’).

16. “Member,” Slavery Gradually Starved to Death, 1 (‘Question’), 2–3 (‘wantonly’), and 5–6 (‘Slave owner’ and ‘least expenditure’). The mention of England being “enslaved” to her colonies was perhaps a reference to James Stephen, England Enslaved by Her Own Slave Colonies (London: Hatchard and Son, 1826).

17. Richard Bourke, Empire and Revolution: The Political Life of Edmund Burke (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 647–663 (‘Burke’); Major, Slavery, Abolitionism and Empire, 314 (‘reproduced’).

18. “Member,” Slavery Gradually Starved to Death, 7 (‘Adam Smith’ and ‘travel narratives’), 21–22 (‘emancipated’ and ‘Hayti’), and 23 (‘economising’); J. R. Ward, ‘The Profitability of Sugar Planting in the British West Indies, 1650–1834’, Economic History Review 31 (May 1978), 209 (‘annual profits’).

19. “Member,” Slavery Gradually Starved to Death, 29 (‘opiate’, ‘melioration’, and ‘stupefy’) and 26 (‘volcano’, ‘bedlam’, ‘carnage’, and ‘lawless’); A List of the Names of the Proprietors of East-India Stock who Appear, By the Books of the East-India Company, Qualified to Vote at the General Election, 12th April 1837 (London: Cox and Sons, 1836), 92 (‘invest’); Charles Henry Cooper and John William Cooper, eds., Annals of Cambridge, Volume V: 1850–1856 with Additions and Corrections to Volumes I–IV and Index to the Complete Work (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908), 107 (‘college prize’).

20. ‘Sir Alexander Craufurd’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146660847, accessed 6 February 2023 (‘Grenville’); ‘George William Gregan Craufurd’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=craufurd&suro=w&fir=george&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 6 February 2023 (‘fellowship’); Will of George William Craufurd, Wills, 1800–1914, KCA, GBR/0272/KCHR/3/1/8, 33–38 (‘Divinity Lectureship’); Adam Sedgwick to Bishop Wilberforce, 16 July 1848, in Clark and Hughes, eds., Life and Letters of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick, vol. 2, 143 (‘slave-grown’); Adam Sedgwick to Mrs Norton, in ibid., 394 (‘sucked’); ‘Rev. Adam Sedgwick’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/24026, accessed 4 March 2022 (‘trustee’). Sedgwick, who taught the famed naturalist Charles Darwin, supported the Union during the American Civil War, and advocated in his private letters for the conflict to be a ‘war for the abolition of slavery’. (Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin’s Sacred Cause: How a Hatred of Slavery Shaped Darwin’s Views on Human Evolution [Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009], 327.)

21. George W. Craufurd, ‘The Impolicy of Slave Labour’, Tourist: A Literary and Anti-Slavery Journal, under the Superintendence of the Agency of the Anti-Slavery Society, 10 December 1832 (‘mankind’, ‘liberally’, ‘direct tax’, ‘loss to the British economy’, and ‘system’); Lawrence Goldman, Victorians and Numbers: Statistics and Society in Nineteenth Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 33–34 (‘Statistical Section’); Rev. Richard Jones, An Introductory Lecture on Political Economy, Delivered at King’s College, London, 27th February, 1833 (London: John Murray, 1833), 59 (‘Evils’). For abolitionists and the profitability of free labour, see Seymour Drescher, The Mighty Experiment: Free Labor versus Slavery in British Emancipation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 149–152.

22. Jeremy C. Mitchell and James Cornford, ‘The Political Demography of Cambridge 1832–1868’, Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 9 (Autumn 1977), 251 (‘1,400’); Searby, History of the University of Cambridge, Volume III, 386–387 (‘held elections’) and 390 (‘uncontested’); ‘1832 General Election – Cambridge’, UK General Election Results, 1832–2019, https://api.parliament.uk/uk-general-elections/elections/53, accessed 12 September 2023 (‘contest’ and ‘victorious’); George Pryme, An Introductory Lecture and Syllabus, to a Course Delivered in the University of Cambridge, on the Principles of Political Economy (Cambridge: Deighton & Sons, 1823), 13 (‘dearer’) and 18 (‘scarcity’, ‘slavery’, ‘plunder’, and ‘neglected’). The Senate named Pryme as a Professor, but the chair was not endowed until 1863 (after Pryme’s retirement). (Professor Pryme to the Rev. the Master of Trinity, 11 May 1863, in Alicia Bayne, ed., Autobiographic Recollections of George Pryme, Esq. M.A. [Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, and Co., 1870], 348–349.)

23. “Fair Play,” To the Electors of Cambridgeshire. Economy, Independence, and Truth (Cambridge: H. Talbot, 1832), Election Broadsides, CA, KAR89/82/11 (‘declares’); Michael J. Turner, Independent Radicalism in Early Victorian Britain (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2004), 195 (‘sceptic’); George Pryme, To the Electors of the Town of Cambridge (Cambridge: W. Hatfield, 1832), Election Broadsides, CA, KAR89/82/53 (‘condition’); “An Abolitionist,” Slavery! To the Electors Of the County of Cambridge and Isle of Ely (Cambridge: Hodson & Brown, 1832), ibid., 136 (‘FRIEND’ and ‘excerpts’); Charles Philip Yorke, To the Electors of the County of Cambridge and Isle of Ely (Cambridge: Hodson and Brown, 1832), ibid., 138 (‘humanity’ and ‘common justice’).

24. A Full Report of the Proceedings at the Cambridge County Election, Commencing Tuesday, August 10, 1830 (Cambridge: Matfield, 1830), 50 (‘interest’, ‘sincere’, ‘faithful’, and ‘management’) and 56 (‘common’); ‘Diamond’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/estate/view/3500, accessed 27 September 2022 (‘trustee’); David R. Fisher, ‘Cambridgeshire’, History of Parliament, www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1820-1832/constituencies/cambridgeshire#footnoteref18_3kjxjcw, accessed 27 September 2022 (‘white’ and ‘distresses’).

25. George W. Craufurd, Slavery! Captain Yorke’s Views, on the Subject of Colonial Slavery, Refuted, In Two Letters, Together with Captain Yorke’s Attempted Defence (Cambridge: Weston Hatfield, 1832), 3 (‘placards’ and ‘emancipation’), 5 (‘clothing’, ‘sudden’, and ‘equitable’), 6 (‘cattle’), and 8 (‘industry’); Thomas Seccombe, ‘Charles Philip Yorke (1764–1834)’, in Stephen and Lee, eds., DNB, vol. 63, 341 (‘Tory’). See, for example, “A Well Wisher to All Parties,” Negro Slavery Exposed (Cambridge: W. Hatfield, 1824); Rev. William Cuttriss, Slavery Inconsistent with Christianity (Cambridge: Johnson, 1825); Charles Telfair and Thomas Jackson, An Appeal to the Freeholders of the County of Cambridge and Isle of Ely, on the Subject of Colonial Slavery (Cambridge: W. Metcalfe, 1832); Charles Telfair and Thomas Jackson, Britain’s Burden, or, The Intolerable Evils of Colonial Slavery Exposed (Cambridge: W. Metcalfe, 1832); and The Mauritius: an Exemplification of Colonial Policy; Addressed to the Electors of Cambridge and Devonport (Birmingham: B. Hudson, 1837). In 1840, a Cambridge publisher reprinted Robert Robinson’s Slavery inconsistent with the spirit of Christianity for ‘gratuitous distribution’.

26. J. Kent McGaughy, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia: Portrait of an American Revolutionary (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2004), 24 (‘owner’); R. B. Harraden, Jr., History of the University of Cambridge Illustrated by a Series of Engravings Representing the Most Picturesque and Interesting Edifices in the University and the Most Striking Parts of the Town (Cambridge: J. Smith, 1814), 155 (‘college fellow’).Two years before his death, Porteus transferred government stock worth £1,200 to Christ’s to fund three gold medal prizes for students. (Cambridge University Commission: Report of Her Majesty’s Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the State, Discipline, Studies, and Revenues of the University and Colleges of Cambridge: Together with the Evidence, and an Appendix [London: W. Clowes and Sons, 1852], 382.)

27. J. C. S. Mason, The Moravian Church and the Missionary Awakening in England, 1760–1800 (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 2001), 92 (‘unwilling’); William Knox to the Lord Chancellor (Thurlow), 26 May 1789, ‘The manuscripts of Captain H. V. Knox’, in Report on Manuscripts in Various Collections, vol. 6 (Dublin: John Falconer, 1909), 203 (‘prevented’); Brown, Moral Capital, 346 (‘reformation’).

28. Brown, Moral Capital, 240 (‘means’) and 352–364 (‘awakening’); Beilby Porteus, The Cultivation, improvement, and conversion of the Negro-slaves in the British West-India islands recommended, 23 February 1783, in Beilby Porteus, Sermons on Several Subjects by the Right Reverend Beilby Porteus, D. D. Bishop of London (London: T. Payne, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1808), 396 (‘human’ and ‘saved’), 397 (‘knowledge’), and 403 (‘improvement’).

29. Ibid., 406 (‘failed’), 410 (‘blessings’), and 411 (‘emoluments’).

30. Mason, Moravian Church, 127 (‘Christians’); 1789 report, in Sessional Papers, LXIX, 1 (‘State’); Address of Incorporated Society for the Conversion and Religious Instruction and Education of the Negro Slaves in the British West India Islands (London: The Society, 1824), 3–5 (‘founded’ and ‘amelioration’).

31. Selected Parts of the Holy Bible, For the Use of the Negro Slaves, in the British West-India Islands (London: Law and Gilbert, 1807) (‘Exodus’); William Greenfield, A Defence of the Surinam Negro-English Version of the New Testament (London: Samuel Bagster, 1830), 5 (‘Austen’).

32. Address of Incorporated Society, list of governors (‘members’), 14 (‘Planters’), 7 (‘Byam’), and 11 (‘Ireland’).

33. Beilby Porteus, A Letter to the Governors, Legislatures, and Proprietors of Plantations, in the British West-India Islands (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1808), 3 (‘blessings’), 5–6 (‘natural’, ‘fatal’, and ‘moral’), and 12–13 (‘enormous’); Joyce E. Chaplin, ‘Slavery and the Principle of Humanity: A Modern Idea in the Early Lower South’, Journal of Social History 24 (Winter 1990), 311 (‘souls’).

34. Richard Burgh Byam to William Howley, 4 December 1820, Papers of the Bishop of London: Correspondence and papers on the church overseas, LPL, FP Howley 2, 23–26.

35. ‘Rev. John Hothersall Pinder’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146652643, accessed 9 July 2021 (‘ordained’); 17 January 1797, Barbados Journal, BOD, vol. 4, X23, 72276x23, ff. 19–20 (‘Nicholson’); John Hothersall Pinder to William Howley, 12 May 1821, Papers of the Bishop of London: Correspondence and papers on the church overseas, LPL, FP Howley 2, 599 (‘instruct’, ‘afternoon’, and ‘Creed’); The Christian Remembrancer; or, The Churchman’s Biblical, ecclesiastical & literary miscellany, vol. 6 (London, 1824), 151–152 (‘thanksgiving’ and ‘servant’).

36. Richard Burgh Byam, Suggestions for Promoting (Under the Patronage of the Church) Such Measures in the West Indies, as may Reasonably be Expected to Produce the Rapid Decline of Slavery, By a Member of the Senate, Who is also a Clergyman of the Church of England an Owner of West India Property, and a Member of His Majesty’s Council in one of the Colonies, 1825, Papers of the Bishop of London: Correspondence and papers on the church overseas, LPL, FP Howley 2, 91–94.

37. ‘Henry Nelson Coleridge’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=coleridge&suro=w&fir=henry&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 17 January 2022 (‘distinguished’); Sehon Sylvester Coleridge, Facing the Challenge of Emancipation: A Study of the Ministry of William Hart Coleridge, First Bishop of Barbados, 1824–1842 (London: Canoe Press, 2014) (‘advocate’); Henry Nelson Coleridge, Six Months in the West Indies, in 1825 (London: John Murray, 1826), 7 (‘Polar’), 8 (‘Planters’), and 72 (‘turn’); Henry Nelson Coleridge, Six Months in the West Indies: Fourth Edition (London: Thomas Tegg, 1841), preface to the third edition (‘Abolitionists’, ‘hacked’, and ‘domestic treason’).

38. Ibid., title page (‘Late Fellow’); Simon P. Newman, ‘Hidden in Plain Sight: Escaped Slaves in Late-Eighteenth- and Early-Nineteenth Century Jamaica’, WMQ, https://oireader.wm.edu/open_wmq/hidden-in-plain-sight/hidden-in-plain-sight-escaped-slaves-in-late-eighteenth-and-early-nineteenth-century-jamaica/, accessed 1 December 2022 (‘Hakewill’ and ‘vibrancy’); Jay B. Haviser, African Sites: Archaeology in the Caribbean (Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner Publishers, 1999), 205 (‘coarse’).

39. Coleridge, Six Months, 45 (‘mass’), 53 (‘violent’), 169 (‘feudal’), 72 (‘noble plant’), 109 (‘sublime’ and ‘lovely’), 183 (‘verdant’), 52 (‘beautiful’), 123 (‘delightful’), and 221 (‘country villages’); Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 209 (‘carceral’); Daniel McKinnen, A Tour Through the British West Indies, in the Years 1802 and 1803, Giving a Particular Account of the Bahama Islands (London: J. White, 1804), 69 (‘tone and argument’). For these Caribbean travellers, see also John R. Oldfield, Transatlantic Abolitionism in the Age of Revolution: An International History of Anti-slavery, c. 1787–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 141–142.

40. Coleridge, Six Months, 84 (‘disgusting’ and ‘correct’), 136 (‘naked’, ‘sucking’, ‘pleasure’, and ‘gratitude’), 84–85 (‘passion’ and ‘intensity’), 76 (‘delightful’, ‘negro girls’, and ‘massa’), 92 (‘external’), 88 (‘new comforts’), and 104 (‘stimulus’ and ‘improvement’).

41. Ibid., 102 (‘Castle’), 239 (‘education’ and ‘tempers’), 315–316 (‘Oxford or Cambridge’ and ‘monsters’), 239 (‘scarcely’ and ‘protection’), 314 (‘refused’), 299 (‘model of England’, ‘equality’, and ‘restlessness’), 302 (‘interference’ and ‘tyranny’), 303 (‘every age’), 304 (‘spirit’), and 312 (‘exception’).

42. B. W. Higman, Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 (Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1995), 72 (‘665,000’); Coleridge, Six Months, 118 (‘churches’, ‘tread-wheel’, ‘chained slave’, and ‘Brixton’), 326 (‘insurrections’), 185 (‘observant race’); David H. Shayt, ‘Stairway to Redemption: America’s Encounter with the British Prison Treadmill’, Technology and Culture 30 (October 1989), 909–910 (‘1779’); Diana Paton, No Bond but the Law: Punishment, Race, and Gender in Jamaican State Formation, 1780–1870 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 93 (‘amongst other reformers’).

43. Coleridge, Six Months, 308 (‘Planters and Slaves’), 318 (‘hardly at present’, ‘equality’, and ‘citizens’), 319 (‘moral’), 327 (‘protection’), 320 (‘market’), 321 (‘sudden’ and ‘fit’).

44. Coleridge, Six Months, 1 (‘rheumatism’); ‘Literature’, The Morning Post, 20 December 1832 (‘newspapers’); ‘Mode of Dressing a Turtle’, The Charleston Mercury, 22 August 1826 (‘excerpts’); ‘New Books for Christmas Gifts, &c.’, The Sydney Morning Herald, 18 December 1837 (‘New South Wales’); Charles Lamb to Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 22 March 1826, in Alfred Ainger, ed., The Letters of Charles Lamb Newly Arranged, with Additions, vol. 2 (New York: A. C. Armstrong & Son, 1894), 144 (‘excellent sense’); The Young Logicians; or School-Boy Conceptions of Rights and Wrongs. With a Particular Reference to ‘Six Months in the West Indies’. Part the Second (Birmingham: B. Hudson, 1828), 31–32 (‘licentiousness’, ‘tenth’, ‘filthy’, and ‘readers’); Kathleen Coburn and Merton Christensen, eds., The Notebooks of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, vol. 4 (London: Routledge, 2003), 558 (‘flippancy’, ‘vulgarity’, and ‘enormity’).

45. Ralph Bernal, Substance of the Speech of Ralph Bernal, Esq. (London: J. Moyes, 1826), 3 (‘general body’) and 5 (‘case’).

46. Rev. Stephen Isaacson, A Vindication of the West-India Proprietors, In a Speech Delivered at Mansion House Chapel, Camberwell, August 18, 1832, With an Appendix (London: J. Fraser, 1832), 4 (‘crowded’), 7 (‘prosperous’), and 8 (‘last’).

47. Rev. Richard Bickell, The West Indies as They Are; or A Real Picture of Slavery: But more particularly as it Exists in the Island of Jamaica (London: J. Hatchard and Son, 1825), title page (‘Member’); ‘Rev. Richard Bickell’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146636055, accessed 10 February 2023 (‘five-year’); Venn and Venn, Alumni Cantabrigiensis, vol. 2, 256 (‘Sidney’); ‘John Anderson’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146642899, accessed 10 February 2023 (‘Anderson’).

48. Bickell, West Indies as They Are, 146–147 (‘working’ and ‘handsome income’); ‘Excerpts from Jamaican Records and Anglican Parish Registers’, Jamaican Family Search, www.jamaicanfamilysearch.com/Members/Rw_j-y.htm, accessed 10 February 2023 (‘quadroon’).

49. ‘“A West Indian Proprietor” to the Rev. Dr. Lambe’, Grenada Free Press, and Public Gazette, 27 August 1828.

50. Ralph Davis, The Industrial Revolution and British Overseas Trade (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1979), 43 (‘most valuable’); Copy of lease to Robert Sacker of Haverhill, 5 May 1609, Cambridge, St Edward’s Parish deeds, CCC, GBR/0268/CCCC09/09/49D, Copy of a lease to Robert Tavan, tailor, 10 May 1624, Cambridge, St Bene’t (St Benedict’s) parish, ibid., 18/202J, Copy of a lease to Robert Sacker of Offord Darcy, 8 January 1630, Cambridge, St. Edward’s parish, ibid., 09/122F, Counterpart of lease to Elizabeth Sadler of a tenement, 27 May 1786, Cambridge, St Bene’t (St Benedict’s) parish, ibid., 18/223, Counterpart of lease to Mary Harrison of a tenement, 31 March 1800, ibid., 223b, Lease to John Bicheno of property in Bene’t Street, 4 March 1814, Deeds relating to the college tenement in Bene’t Street, ibid., 18/236, Lease to John Bicheno of premises, ibid., 236.1, and Counterpart of lease to George Salmon, gent., 1 June 1838, Cambridge, St. Edward’s parish, deeds, ibid., 09/191 (‘good Barbary’); Theodore B. Leinwand, Theatre, Finance and Society in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 24 (‘Thomas Gresham’); Chouki El Hamel, Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 144–145 (‘al-Mansur’), 152 (‘pyramids’ and ‘gold’), and 154 (‘Caribbean’).

51. John Gilmore, The Poetics of Empire: A Study of James Grainger’s The Sugar Cane (1764) (New Brunswick, NJ: The Athlone Press, 2000), 9 (‘patronage’); Susan Clair Imbarrato, Sarah Gray Cary from Boston to Grenada: Shifting Fortunes of an American Family, 1764–1826 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018), 29–30 (‘undergraduate’); M. J. Chapman, Barbadoes, and Other Poems (London: J. Moyes, 1833), vii–viii (‘colonies and empire’) and 42 (‘infuriate’). John Bourryau, whose father owned property on Saint Kitts, was Grainger’s patron and may have also assisted with translation work for the poem.

52. Ibid., 101–102 (‘Polygamy’); Sharon Block, Rape and Sexual Power in Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 208–209 (‘sexual violence’); Sarah M. S. Pearsall, Polygamy: An Early American History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), 119 (‘shorthand’) and 120 (‘unfit’).

53. ‘John Pollard Mayers’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/41310, accessed 10 January 2022 (‘matriculated’); Bruce M. Taylor, ‘Our Man in London: John Pollard Mayers, Agent for Barbados, and the British Abolition Act, 1832–1834’, Caribbean Studies 16 (October 1976), 75–76 (‘testimonies and statistics’), 83–84 (‘reluctant’, ‘conciliation’, and ‘attaining’), and 74 (‘indemnity’).

54. 25 April 1834, in John Patrick Tuer Bury, ed., Romilly’s Cambridge Diary, 1832–42: Selected Passages from the Diary of the Rev. Joseph Romilly, Fellow of Trinity College and Registrar of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 56 (‘grand quarterly feast’); Matthew Gregory Lewis, Journal of a West India Proprietor, Kept during a Residence in the Island of Jamaica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) (‘volume’); ‘Matthew Gregory Lewis’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/-1890542757, 12 January 2022 (‘five hundred’).

55. ‘Sir Alexander Cray Grant, 8th Baronet’, ibid., www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/19810, accessed 12 January 2022 (‘£14,000’); 29 June 1841, in Bury, ed., Romilly’s Cambridge Diary, 1832–42, 219 (‘Banner’); ‘The Cambridge Election’, Cambridge Independent Press, 23 May 1840 (‘respectable’ and ‘human’).

56. ‘The Slavery Question and the Cambridge Constituency’, ibid., 26 June 1841 (‘monopoly’, ‘dear’, and ‘foreign’); Thomas Perronet Thompson, Catechism on the Corn Laws; with a List of Fallacies and the Answers. Twelfth Edition (London: Robert Heward, 1829), 55 (‘unity’); Philip Harling, ‘Sugar Wars: The Culture of Free Trade versus the Culture of Anti-Slavery in Britain and the British Caribbean, 1840–50’, in Barry Crosbie and Mark Hampton, eds., The Cultural Construction of the British World (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015), 59 (‘Brazilian’).

1. Bishop Green of Mississippi to the Rev. Dr. William Hepworth Thompson, 8 June 1868, Letters received from various dignitaries, 1613–1868, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/Lett.17/30 (‘thanked’ and ‘pleasure’); Books ‘presented by the University of Cambridge to The Library of the University of the Southern States of America, 26 March 1868’, University of Cambridge Book Collection, WRL (‘volumes included’); William Clark, Catalogue of the Osteological Portions of Specimens Contained in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 106 (‘Negroes’ and ‘Budd’).

2. George Rainsford Fairbanks, History of the University of the South, at Sewanee, Tennessee: From Its Founding by the Southern Bishops, Clergy, and Laity of the Episcopal Church in 1857 to the Year 1905 (Jacksonville, FL: The H. & W. B. Drew Company, 1905), 7 (‘theological’); Woody Register and Benjamin King, ‘A Research Summary on Slavery at the University of the South and in the Community of Sewanee’, The University of the South, https://new.sewanee.edu/roberson-project/learn-more/research-summary/#:~:text=While%20other%20universities%20have%20documented,itself%20ever%20owned%20enslaved%20people, accessed 10 February 2023 (‘native’ and ‘go forth’); W. Brown Patterson, The Liberal Arts at Sewanee (Sewanee, TN: The University of the South, 2009), 16 (‘Sewanee Mining Company’).

3. Kate Parrish, ‘Ghosts of Lone Rock’, University of the South, https://new.sewanee.edu/features/ghosts-of-lone-rock/, accessed 10 February 2023 (‘convicts’); Charles Todd Quintard, The Confederate Soldier’s Pocket Manual of Devotions (Charleston: Evans & Cogswell, 1863), title page (‘compile’) and 29–30 (‘servant’).

4. Charles Reagan Wilson, Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009), 147 (‘five trips’); Richard J. M. Blackett, Divided Hearts: Britain and the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 104 (‘thirty-nine’); Benjamin J. King, ‘Church, Cotton, and Confederates; What Bishop Charles Todd Quintard’s Fundraising Trips to Great Britain Reveal about Some Nineteenth-Century Anglo-Catholics’, Anglican and Episcopal History 90 (June 2021), 112 (‘University Church’); ‘Charles Todd Quintard’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=quintard&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 13 February 2023 (‘doctorate’); ‘University of the South (Sewanee, Tennessee, U.S.A.)’, in Carol Summerfield and Mary Elizabeth Devine, ed., International Dictionary of University Histories (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 640 (‘£2,500’); An Offering from English Churchmen to the American Bishops Towards the Re-Establishment of their University for the South and South-West Dioceses, Charles Todd Quintard Papers, WRL, Box 3, Folder 4 (‘Joining’ and ‘donors’); ‘Hope, Alexander Beresford’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=HP837AJ&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 17 January 2022 (‘honorary’); Patterson, Liberal Arts, 16 (‘first-class’ and ‘civilized world’).

5. Bishop Green to Thompson, 8 June 1868, Letters from various dignitaries, 1613–1868, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/Lett.17/30.

6. ‘Caskie Harrison’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=harrison&suro=w&fir=caskie&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 14 February 2023 (‘Harrison’); Wilson, Baptized in Blood, 197 (‘Gothic’); Rev. William Mercer Green and Rev. Telfair Hodgson, The University of the South: Papers relating to Christian Education at this University, and the necessity of this Institution to the country, especially to the South and Southwest, etc. (Sewanee, TN: James Pott & Co., Church Publishers, 1882), 34 (‘plainer’); Register and King, ‘A Research Summary on Slavery at the University of the South and in the Community of Sewanee’ (‘portals’).

7. ‘Edward Strutt Abdy’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=abdy&suro=w&fir=edward&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, 11 January 2022 (‘educated’); ‘Sir William Abdy, 7th Baronet’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/293, accessed 13 January 2022 (‘£13,404’); Sir Bernard Burke and Ashworth Peter Burke, A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Peerage and Baronetage, the Privy Council, Knightage and Companions (London: Harrison, 1910), 1393–1394 (‘Rutherforth’).

8. Edward Strutt Abdy, Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States of North America, From April, 1833, to October, 1834, vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1835), ch. 8. (‘travelled’); Alexis de Tocqueville, De la Démocratie en Amérique, 2 vols. (Brussels: C. Gosselin, 1835 and 1840) (‘journeyed’); Abdy, Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States, vol. 3, 85 (‘less than whites’), 207 (‘hardly safe’ and ‘stones and racist epithets’), and 118 (‘Chatham Street’).

9. Ibid., vol. 2, 180–181 (‘disdain’) and 97 (‘frozen’); ibid., vol. 1, 375 (‘disgraceful’), 378 (‘Spartacus’), 391 (‘plunder and oppression’), and vi (‘civil or servile’).

10. Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, The Illimitable Freedom of the Human Mind: Thomas Jefferson’s Idea of a University (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2021), 187 (‘Key’ and ‘Cottrell’); The Alumni Bulletin of the University of Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 1894), 33 (‘$250’); The History of the College of William and Mary: From Its Foundation, 1660, to 1874 (Richmond, VA: J. W. Randolph & English, 1874), 69 (‘Potts’); ‘Advertisement’, The Evening Post (New York), 23 August 1842 (‘late Fellow’); 31 May 1849, in Thomas Fitzhugh, ed., Letters of George Long (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1917), 18 (‘professor’) and 23 (‘friend’); George Long, The Geography of America and the West Indies (London: Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1841), 223–224 (‘degraded’, ‘produces’, and ‘superiority’).

11. Abdy, Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States, vol. 3, 274–275 (‘indifference’, ‘pure love’, and ‘obloquy’); First Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the New-England Anti-Slavery Society, Presented Jan. 9, 1833 (Boston: Garrison and Knapp, 1833), 22–23 (‘life member’ and ‘unrighteously’); Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 277–278 (‘Egypt’ and ‘merchant’).

12. ‘The United States’, Leigh Hunt’s London Journal (London: Charles Knight and Henry Hooper, 1834), 262 (‘Leigh’); ‘Abdy’s Tour in the United States’, The Monthly Review, From May to August Inclusive, vol. 2 (London: G. Henderson, 1835), 326 (‘Monthly’ and ‘tiresome’); ‘Abdy’s Journal in the United States’, The Westminster Review (New York: Theodore Foster, 1835), 1836 (‘Westminster’); ‘Abdy’s Journal and Residence of a Tour in the United States’, in W. J. Fox, ed., The Monthly Repository for 1835, vol. 9 (London: Charles Fox, 1835), 729 (‘Repository’); ‘Tours in America, by Latrobe, Abdy, &c.’, The Quarterly Review, vol. 54 (London: John Murray, 1835), 392 (‘Quarterly’ and ‘Latrobe’); ‘Review. – Abdy’s Tour in the United States’, The Baptist Magazine, vol. 27 (London: George Wightman, 1835), 373 (‘Baptist’); Catalogue of Books Added to the Library of the Library Company of Philadelphia, Since the Large Catalogue of 1835 to January, 1844 (Philadelphia: C. Sherman, 1844), 134 (‘Library Company’); ‘E. S. Abdy’, in Julius Rubens Ames, ed., ‘Liberty’: The Image and Superscription on Every Coin Issued by the United States of America (New York, NY: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1837), 202 (‘Liberty’); The Legion of Liberty and Force of Truth, Containing the Thoughts, Words, and Deeds, of Some Prominent Apostles, Champions and Martyrs (New York, NY: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1857), 230 (‘Legion of Liberty’).

13. Iain Whyte, Scotland and the Abolition of Black Slavery, 1756–1838 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), 234–235 (‘floggings’); Edward Strutt Abdy to William Tait, 2 September 1835, African American History Collection, 1729–1966, WLC (‘flattering’, ‘wounded’, and ‘republican’).

14. Second Annual Report of the American Anti-Slavery Society; with the Speeches Delivered at the Anniversary Meeting, Held in the City of New-York, On the 12th May, 1835, and the Minutes of the Meetings of the Society for Business (New York, NY: William S. Dorr, 1835), 58 (‘abolitionist’) and 15 (‘friends’).

15. Thomas F. Harwood, ‘Prejudice and Antislavery: The Colloquy between William Ellery Channing and Edward Strutt Abdy, 1834’, American Quarterly 18 (Winter 1966), 699 (‘racial prejudice’); Abdy, Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States, vol. 3, 228 (‘distinction’); E. S. Abdy, American Whites and Blacks, In Reply to a German Orthodermist (London: Charles Gilpin, 1842), 22 (‘racial mixing’), 5–6 (‘immigration’), and 39 (‘pure religion’).

16. Abdy, Journal of a Residence and Tour in the United States, vol. 1, xii (‘craniology’) and 341 (‘thicker’).

17. Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, Examination of the Objections Made in Britain against the Doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim (Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1833), 42 (‘botanical’, ‘favor’, and ‘increased’); ‘The Present State of Phrenology in the University of Cambridge’, The Phrenological Journal and Miscellany, vol. 10 (Edinburgh: Clachlan and Stewart, and John Anderson, 1837), 706–709 (‘attended’, ‘perusing’, ‘leading’, ‘theme’, and ‘casts’); Alan Richardson, British Romanticism and the Science of the Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 23–25 (‘Spurzheim’).

18. Abdy, American Whites and Blacks, 45 (‘blessings’) and 44 (‘war for America’); Walter M. Merrill, ed., The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, Volume III: No Union With Slavers, 1841–1849 (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1973), 401 (‘Garrison’); Boston Julie Winch, A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 122 (‘Forten’); The Third Annual Report of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, for the Abolition of Slavery and the Slave-Trade Throughout the World; Presented to the General Meeting Held in Exeter Hall, On Friday, May 13th, 1842 (London: Thomas Ward and Co., 1842), 183 (‘donated’); ‘Abdy, Edward Strutt (1791–1846)’, in Junius Rodriguez, ed., Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World, vol. 1 (London and New York: Routledge, 2015), 4 (‘American’ and ‘£500’). The debate within Black abolition circles over whether violence would be required to abolish slavery in the United States is discussed in Kellie Carter Jackson, Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019); and Blight, Frederick Douglass, 242.

19. John R. Oldfield, ed., Civilization and Black Progress: Selected Writings of Alexander Crummell on the South (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995), 2–3 (‘New York’); Gene Dattel, Cotton and Race in the Making of America: The Human Costs of Economic Power (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), 86 (‘forty’); Jacqueline Bacon, Freedom’s Journal: The First African-American Newspaper (New York, NY: Lexington Books, 2007), 38–39 (‘Journal’).

20. Oldfield, ed., Civilization and Black Progress, 3–4 (‘England’) and 6 (‘success’); Wilson Jeremiah Moses, Alexander Crummell: A Study of Civilization and Discontent (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 57 (‘Queens’); Alexander Crummell to John Jay, 9 August 1848, in C. Peter Ripley, ed, The Black Abolitionist Papers, vol. 1 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 143 (‘superior’, ‘lively’, ‘standard’, ‘advantages’, and ‘my people’). For Pan-Africanism, see Brandon R. Byrd, The Black Republic: African Americans and the Fate of Haiti (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019); and Sinha, Slave’s Cause, 131–132.

21. Anna B. Roderick, Lecturing the Victorians: Knowledge-Based Culture and Participatory Citizenship (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2024), 5 (‘culture’) and 89 (‘international’); ‘Cambridge Anti-Slavery Meeting’, Cambridge Independent Press, 25 July 1840 (‘instrumentality’, ‘heartfelt’, ‘rescued’, and ‘fetters’).

22. Audrey Fisch, ‘Uncle Tom and Harriet Beecher Stowe in England’, in Cindy Weinstein, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Harriet Beecher Stowe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 96 (‘million’); ‘Lecture on Slavery’, Cambridge Chronicle, 15 September 1855 (‘thrilling’, ‘Craft’, ‘slave’, and ‘buying’); Barbara McCaskill, ‘William and Ellen Craft in Transatlantic Literature and Life’, in Barbara McCaskill ed., William Craft & Ellen Craft: Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1999), ix. (‘mother’); Blight, Frederick Douglass, 171 (‘£150’); ‘Slave Education’, Cambridge Independent Press, 29 March 1856 (‘late’ and ‘testimony’); ‘American Slavery’, Cambridge Independent Press, 5 June 1858 (‘escaped’ and ‘cruelty’).

23. Marty Gould, Nineteenth-Century Theatre and the Imperial Encounter (London: Routledge, 2011), 3–8 (‘three hundred’); ‘Negro Life! in Freedom and in Slavery’, The Cambridge Chronicle and University Journal, Isle of Ely Herald, and Huntingdonshire Gazette, 18 March 1854 (‘Series’, ‘African Village’, and ‘Slave Sale’); Henry Russell, ‘The African Village’, in John Diprose, Diprose’s Comic and Sentimental Song Book (London: David Bryce, 1856), 44 (‘savage’).

24. Lewis Defrates, ‘“Showing Up America”: Performing Race and Nation in Britain Before the First World War’, The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 21 (2022), 319 (‘culture’ and ‘Wells’) and 323 (‘Fisk’); ‘The Jubilee Singers’, The Cambridge Chronicle and University Journal, Isle of Ely Herald, and Huntingdonshire Gazette, 10 June 1876 (‘Days of Slavery’ and ‘Swing Low’); Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (Boston: Anti-Slavery Office, 1845), 14 (‘feeble comprehension’).

25. Lawrence Goldman, Science, Reform, and Politics in Victorian Britain: The Social Science Association, 1857–1886 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 239 (‘middle-class’); Heather Ellis, Generational Conflict and University Reform: Oxford in the Age of Revolution (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2012), 187–217 (‘Royal Commission’ and ‘stranglehold’); A Collection of Cambridge Senate-House Papers, In Homer, Virgil, Locke and Paley’s Philosophy and Evidences, As Given At the Examination for B.A. Degrees (Cambridge: J. Hall and J. Hankin, 1832), 54 (‘favour of Slavery’ and ‘Define’) and 24 (‘what causes’ and ‘arise’).

26. Cambridge Examination Papers: Being A Supplement to the University Calendar for the Year 1856 (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell and Co., 1856), 83 (‘always wrong’); Cambridge University Examination Papers, vol. 8 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1879), 462 (‘circumstances’); ‘Subjects for the University Prizes for the Year 1857’, The Times, 17 December 1856 (‘poetry’); Churchill Babington, The Influence of Christianity in Promoting the Abolition of Slavery in Europe (Cambridge: J. & J. J. Deighton, 1846), 163–164 (‘medieval’); C. M. Kennedy, The Influence of Christianity upon International Law (Cambridge: Macmillan and Co., 1856), 122–125 (‘international laws’).

27. ‘Charles Clayton’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=clayton&suro=w&fir=charles&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 14 February 2023 (‘admitted’); J. M. Gray, A History of the Perse School Cambridge (Cambridge: Bowes & Bowes, 1921), 13–14 (‘founded’); 7 April 1848, Private Diary of Charles Clayton, GCC, Claytonia (‘from New York’); 9 April 1848, ibid. (‘tour’); 14 April 1848, ibid. (‘religious education’); 8 May 1850, ibid. (‘missionary’); 13 April 1848, 29 October 1849, 24 November 1849, and 10 November 1850, ibid. (‘walking’); 22 May 1849, ibid. (‘boat’).

28. Isaiah. 6. v. 8, ibid. (‘knowledge’); ‘Church Pastoral-Aid Society’, The Ecclesiastical Gazette; or, Monthly Register of the Affairs of the Church of England and of its Religious Societies and Institutions, vol. 1 (London: Charles Cox, 1839), 118 (‘door’); 10 November 1835, Private Diary of Charles Clayton, GCC, Claytonia (‘Chieftain’); 23 May 1836, ibid. (‘stations’ and ‘unhealthy’).

29. Ibid. (‘dejected’); 18 August 1839, ibid. (‘abolitionist figures’ and ‘cruelties’); 23 August 1850, ibid. (‘men’s’); 24 April 1849, ibid. (‘merchant’); 15 January 1849, ibid. (‘see’).

30. 31 May 1849, ibid. (‘dissuaded’ and ‘dejected at the prospect’); Elizabeth Melville, A Residence at Sierra Leone. Described from a Journal Kept on the Spot, and from Letters written to Friends at Home (London: John Murray, 1849), 7 (‘woolly-haired’), 22 (‘all Black’), 21 (‘goose’), and 45 (‘termites’).

31. ‘Spiritual Condition of the Negro in the United States’, Cambridge Chronicle and University Journal, Isle of Ely Herald, and Huntingdonshire Gazette, 15 April 1848 (‘physically’, ‘cattle’, and ‘regular’); Jonathan B. Pritchett, ‘Quantitative Estimates of the United States Interregional Slave Trade, 1820–1860’, The Journal of Economic History 61 (June 2001), 467 (‘835,000’).

32. ‘Spiritual Condition’, Cambridge Chronicle, 15 April 1848. For self-reliance in Crummell’s thought is noted in Moses, Alexander Crummell, 9.

33. Robert Griffin Laing, Legacies absolute/contingent and reversionary, summary volume, 1735–1904, CUL, GBR/0012/MS SPCK/C25/6 (‘Laing’); Christopher Wordsworth, Register of Subscriptions and Donations, LPL, CFS E/13 (‘Wordsworth’); ‘Foundation of New Theological Prize in the University of Cambridge’, Port Philip Gazette, 10 May 1845 (‘heathen’); Elizabeth Elbourne, Empire, Kinship and Violence: Family Histories, Indigenous Rights and the Making of Settler Colonialism, 1770–1842 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022), 171 (‘boarding’); ‘Cambridge Bible Association’, Cambridge Chronicle and Journal, 8 August 1834 (‘Satan’); ‘Emancipated Negroes’, Cambridge Chronicle and Journal, 11 September 1835 (‘construction’).

34. William Charles Dowding to William Whewell, 10 March c. 1852, William Whewell, Letters received by William Whewell, WL, Add. MS a/203/37-38 (‘academical’, ‘Universities’, ‘£25,000’, ‘kind’, and ‘name’); William Charles Dowding, Africa in the West: Its State; Prospects; and Educational Needs: With Reference to Bishop Berkeley’s Bermuda College (Oxford and London: John Henry Parker, 1852), 4–5 (‘crux’ and ‘solving’), 12 (‘childhood’), and 14 (‘graft’); Sarah Hannon and Neil Kennedy, ‘“Slavery wears the mildest Aspect”: Imagining Mastery and Emancipation in Bermuda’s House of Assembly’, The Journal of Caribbean History 53 (2019), 74, n. 9 (‘4,297’ and ‘4,898’); Susette Harriet Lloyd, Sketches of Bermuda (London: James Cochrane and Co., 1835), 245 (‘disenfranchise’).

35. Dowding, Africa in the West, 25 (‘Cambridge’); John Gregory to William Charles Dowding, 26 July 1852, in Accounts and Papers: Forty-Eight Volumes. Colonies. Auckland Islands; Ceylon; West Indies; Africa, &c., vol. 65 (London: H. M. Stationary Office, 1859), 4 (‘fix’); Dowding, Africa in the West, 31–32 (‘academic supporters’); Extract from Governor Charles Elliot, 2 June 1851, Despatches from Charles Elliot, governor of Bermuda, TNA, CO 37/135, f. 263 (‘exertions’); ‘The Seal of St. Paul’s College, c. 1853’, National Museum of Bermuda, https://nmb.bm/collection/the-seal-of-st-pauls-college-c-1853/, accessed 11 July 2023 (‘curriculum’); Bishop of Newfoundland to Charles Elliot, 17 April 1851, Despatches from Charles Elliot, governor of Bermuda, TNA, CO 37/135, f. 264 (‘noble’).

36. Samuel Brownlow Gray, The Revival of Bp. Berkeley’s Bermuda College: A Letter to His Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of all England, &c. (London: Whitaker and Co., 1853), 3–4 (‘human’ and ‘enemies’), 8 (‘dangerous’ and ‘great names’), 12 (‘fusion’), and 16 (‘distinctions’ and ‘Oxford and Cambridge’); Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor, and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832–1938 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 190 (‘applied in Jamaica’).

37. Ibid., 284 (‘racism’); Dubrulle, Ambivalent Nation, 100 (‘Martineau’); Moses, Alexander Crummell, 57 (‘warm reception’) and 70–71 (‘woolly’ and ‘following words’).

38. A. C. Benson, The Life of Edward White Benson: Sometime Archbishop of Canterbury, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1899), 109 (‘Three groans’ and ‘Three cheers’); Alexander Crummell, ‘Eulogium on the Life and Character of Thomas Clarkson, Esq. of England’, 26 December 1846, in Alexander Crummell, Africa and America: Addresses and Discourses (Springfield, MA: Wiley & Co., 1891), 208 (‘no seat of learning’).

39. Suman Seth, ‘Race, Specificity, and Statistics in Victorian Medicine’, Journal of Victorian Culture 27 (April 2022), 377 (‘Prichardian’); Sir Humphry Rolleston, ‘Sir George Murray Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.’, Annals of Medical History 9 (Spring 1927), 1–3 (‘exceeded expectations’) and 4–7 (‘advocated’).

40. George Murray Humphry, A Treatise on the Human Skeleton (Including the Joints) (Cambridge: Macmillan and Co., 1858), 91 (‘inferior’, ‘exhibit’, ‘intermediate’, ‘stature’, ‘less’, ‘cranium’, and ‘foot’), 93 (‘ascent’, ‘actual size’, and ‘conformation’), 298 (‘Congolese’), 98 (‘growth’ and ‘development’), and 99 (‘children’).

41. George Moore, The First Man and His Place in Creation (London: Longmans, 1866), 334 (‘several’ and ‘natural ability’); Jesse Page, The Black Bishop: Samuel Adjai Crowther (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1908), 71 (‘certain’ and ‘logical’).

42. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 166 (‘Long live’); Sir James Fellowes, Reports of the Pestilential Disorder of Andalusia, which Appeared at Cadiz in the Year 1800, 1804, 1810, and 1813 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1815), title page (‘Caian’), x (‘melancholy’), and xi (‘painful’); Payments made by Thomas Crafer for Allowances to St: Domingo Sufferers, between the 31st March 1839 and the 31st March 1840, Expired Commissions: Santo Domingo Claims Committee, West Indies Accounts, TNA, PRO 57/766 (‘yearly pension’ and ‘£130’); ‘Sir Alexander Cockburn Obituary Notice, Monday, November 22, 1880’, Eminent Persons Biographies: Reprinted from The Times, vol. 2 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1893), 222 (‘marriage’) and 223 (‘Trinity Hall’); Summary of Bounty recommended, of Payments on Account, of Extra Payments; Receipts; and General Balance, 14 October 1799, Santo Domingo Claims Commission: Minutes and Papers, TNA, T 81/18 (‘1799’); Hersch Lauterpacht, ed., Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases: Being a Selection from the Decisions of International and National Courts and Tribunals Given during the Years 1938–1940, vol. 9 (Cambridge: Grotius Publications Ltd., 1988), 267 (‘fugitive’); Oliver Gliech, ‘Cockburn, comte’ de’, Plantation and House Owners of St. Domingue, 1750–1803, www.domingino.de/stdomin/index_colons_a_z_engl.html, accessed 16 October 2023 (‘indemnity’). The Vigniers, according to a Cockburn family history, had ‘suffered great misfortunes in the Revolution’. (Sir Robert Cockburn and Harry A. Cockburn, The Records of the Cockburn Family [London and Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis, 1913], 68.) See also David Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint Domingue, 1793–1798 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).

43. The names and amounts of donations can be found in Subscriptions for Building a New Library, &c. &c. in the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: Pitt Press, 1836), 9–39. These subscribers were then cross-referenced with the UCL slave-ownership database. For Cockerell’s slaver connections, see J. Q. Davies, Creatures of the Air: Music, Atlantic Spirits, Breath, 1817–1913 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2023), 110–111.

44. Alexander Crummell, The Negro Race not under a Curse, an Examination of Genesis IX. 25 (London: Wertheim, Macintosh & Hunt, 1853), 7 (‘used’), 21 (‘severities’, ‘horrors’ and ‘modern’), and 30 (‘human’); 25 (‘overworked’ and ‘exterminated’); Crummell, ‘The Race-Problem in America’, 20 November 1888, in Crummell, Africa and America, 54–55 (‘syntax’).

45. Tessa Roynon, Toni Morrison & The Classical Tradition: Transforming American Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 81 (‘classical examples’); Alexander Crummell, Destiny and Race: Selected Writings, 1840–1898, ed., by Wilson Jeremiah Moses (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), unpaginated e-book edition (‘Cicero and Tacitus’, ‘maidenly’, ‘harlot’, and ‘inner life’).

46. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, ed. and intro. by Brent Hayes Edwards (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 145 and David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography, 1868–1963 (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2009), 118–121 (‘lauded’); Oldfield, ed., Civilization and Black Progress, 7–9 (‘relocated’); Alexander Crummell, The Future of Africa: Being Addresses, Sermons, Etc., Etc., Delivered in the Republic of Liberia (New York: Charles Scribner, 1862), 3–4 (‘responsibility’) and 53 (‘slave-hunt’).

47. Oldfield, ed., Civilization and Black Progress, 9–13 (‘taught’); Crummell, Africa and America, v (‘incapacity’), vii (‘miracle’), and 53 (‘fundamental dogma’).

48. ‘The Abolition of the African Slave Trade’, The Times, 13 March 1907.

49. ‘Universities’ Mission to Central Africa’, The Cambridge Chronicle and University Journal, Isle of Ely Herald, and Huntingdonshire Gazette, 11 November 1892 (‘back to Africa’ and ‘soldiers of Christianity’); David Livingstone, Dr Livingstone’s Cambridge Lectures, Together with a Prefatory Letter By the Rev. Professor Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S., &c. (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell and Co., 1858), xxxiv (‘admirably’) and 78 (‘harvest’); John Willis Clark, ed., Endowments of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1904), 429–430 (‘Gedge’); Hausa Association to the Vice-Chancellor, 16 May 1896, ibid., 278 (‘Hausa language’); Samuel W. Baker, ‘Slavery and the Slave Trade’, Macmillan’s Magazine, 30 (July 1874), 194 (‘visiting lecturers’ and ‘annexation’); William Stone, Shall We Annex Egypt: Remarks upon the Present Aspect of the Egyptian Question, Founded upon Observations made in the Country whilst Travelling in the Delta and in the Soudan (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington, 1884), 12 (‘recent graduates’). Stone later donated £10,000 to Peterhouse – the largest post-foundation benefaction in its history. (William Stone, The Squire of Piccadilly: Memories of William Stone in Conversation with Henry Baerlein [London: Jarrolds, 1951], 17.)

50. ‘Oxford and Cambridge Mission to Central Africa’, Oxford University Herald, 21 May 1859.

51. Ibid. (‘debt’, ‘opening’, ‘commerce’, ‘slavery’, and ‘Southern’); D. E. Nwulia, ‘The Role of Missionaries in the Emancipation of Slaves in Zanzibar’, The Journal of Negro History 60 (1975), 247, n. 22 (‘20,000’). See also Andrew Porter, Religion versus Empire? British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 225–234.

52. Alexander H. Stephens, ‘Cornerstone Address, March 21, 1861’, in Frank Moore, ed., The Rebellion Record: A Diary of American Events with Documents, Narratives, Illustrative Incidents, Poetry, etc., vol. 1 (New York: O. P. Putnam, 1862), 45–46 (‘natural condition’ and ‘immediate’); ‘Advertisements’, Cambridge Chronicle and University Journal, Isle of Ely Herald, and Huntingdonshire Gazette, 25 May 1861 (‘Tinted’). For the British pro-Confederates, see Duncan Andrew Campbell, English Public Opinion and the American Civil War (London: Boydell Press, 2003), esp. ch. 5; Amanda Foreman, A World on Fire: Britain’s Crucial Role in the American Civil War (New York: Random House, 2012); Alfred Grant, The American Civil War and the British Press (London: McFarland and Company, 2000); Dubrulle, Ambivalent Nation; and John D. Bennett, The London Confederates: The Officials, Clergy, Businessmen and Journalists Who Backed the American South during the Civil War (London: McFarland and Company, 2008). For the secession crisis in the United States, see also William W. Freehling and Craig M. Simpson, eds., Secession Debated: Georgia’s Showdown in 1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); and Russell McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008).

53. Cambridge and Kingsley on American Affairs, Christian Examiner, November 1863 (‘nowhere greater’, ‘overmastering’, ‘tariffs’, ‘triumph’, and ‘all hands’); Richard D. Fulton, ‘“Now Only the Times is on our Side”: The London Times and America Before the Civil War’, Victorian Review 16 (Summer 1990), 50 (‘anti-abolitionist’). In 1863, The Times publicly opposed the Emancipation Proclamation of 1 January that year, which stated that all enslaved persons held within the Confederate states were free. The paper described it as ‘measure which is not freedom to the blacks, but is, as far as possible, massacre to the women and children of the whites’. (The Times, 5 March 1863). The Times’s pro-Southern approach had earned a stinging rebuke from Samuel R. Calthrop, who wrote a letter in February 1863 to the Daily News in London from Marblehead, Massachusetts, as a man ‘late of Trinity College, Cambridge’. He wrote that the Times was out of touch with American public opinion on enslavement and had misunderstood the origins of the ‘great American contest’, which had broken out, he claimed, because of ‘slavery, and slavery alone’. (‘The American War’, The Daily News, 2 March 1863.)

54. 12 February 1862, Minute Book of Cambridge Union Society, CUL, USOC 1/1/1/17 (‘regret’); 9 December 1861, ibid. (‘seizure’); 28 and 29 October 1862, ibid. (‘misrepresentation’); 14 February 1865, ibid., 18 (‘Stability of all Government’). See also the debates on 26 November 1861, 9 December 1861, 11 February 1862, 12 February 1862, 28 October 1862, 24 February 1863, 27 October 1863, 17 February 1864, 14 February 1865, and 14 November 1865, ibid., 17–18.

55. Ellis Yarnall, Wordsworth and the Coleridges: With Other Memories, Literary and Political (London: Macmillan and Co., 1899), 187 (‘heiress’, ‘encouraging’, and ‘Southern’); Robert E. Lee to Mary Anna Randolph Custis Lee, 27 December 1856, Lee Family Digital Archive, https://leefamilyarchive.org/9-family-papers/339-robert-e-lee-to-mary-anna-randolph-custis-lee-1856-december-27, accessed 6 December 2021 (‘instruction’). John O. Waller argues that his opinions ‘defy prediction and are still relatively resistant to rational explanation’. (‘Charles Kingsley and the American Civil War’, Studies in Philology 60 [July 1963]: 554.) Owen Chadwick writes that it was ‘odd’ to find him ‘on the Confederate side in the American Civil War’. (‘Charles Kingsley at Cambridge’, HJ 18 [June 1975], 317.)

56. Chadwick, ‘Kingsley at Cambridge’, 304 (‘first in classics’) and 322 (‘novels’); John C. Cobden, The White Slaves of England (Auburn: Derby and Miller, 1853), 193 (‘White Slavery’).

57. American Affairs, Christian Examiner, November 1863 (‘abolitionism’); Waller, ‘Kingsley and the American Civil War’, 557 (‘Free-Soil’); Charles Kingsley, Two Years Ago, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1857), ii–iii (‘tainted’, ‘philanthropists’, and ‘disruption’).

58. Charles Kingsley, The Roman and the Teuton: A Series of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge (London: Macmillan and Co., 1864), 305 (‘Teutonic’); Jonathan Conlin, ‘An Illiberal Descent: Natural and National History in the Work of Charles Kingsley’, History 96 (April 2011), 186–187 (‘family of Teutonic races’); Francis Kingsley, ed., Charles Kingsley: His Letters and Memories of His Life, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1885), 107 (‘chimpanzees’); Robert Bernard Martin, The Dust of Combat: A Life of Charles Kingsley (New York: Macmillan, 1960), 257 (‘rapacity’); Margaret Farrand Thorp, Charles Kingsley, 1819–1875 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1937), 150 (‘amenable’); Charles Kingsley, The Gospel of the Pentateuch: A Set of Parish Sermons (London: Parker, Son, and Bourn, 1863), 18 (‘know not’); Waller, ‘Kingsley and the American Civil War’, 562 (‘noble’).

59. Ibid., 561 (‘lectures’); Kingsley, Roman and the Teuton, 20 (‘domestic’ and ‘gentleman’) and 169 (‘chivalrous’, ‘unarmed’, and ‘masters’).

60. Charles Kingsley, The Limits of Exact Science as Applied to History: An Inaugural Lecture, Delivered Before the University of Cambridge (Cambridge and London: Macmillan and Co., 1860) (‘Limits’); Charles Kingsley to Sir Charles Bunbury, 31 December 1861, in Kingsley, ed., Charles Kingsley, vol. 1, 319 (‘American’, ‘Professor’, and ‘gain to us’); ibid., vol. 2, 311 (‘captive’); ‘American Affairs’, Christian Examiner, November 1863 (‘unique country’, ‘fugitive’, ‘moral’, and ‘torrents’).

61. Ibid., (‘worse evil’, ‘political existence’, ‘Confederacy’, and ‘Man after man’); Kingsley, ed., Charles Kingsley, vol. 2, 150–151 (‘sobbed’).

62. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 243 (‘77’) and 247 (‘six’); Charles Kingsley to the Editor of The Times, undated, in Kingsley, ed., Charles Kingsley, vol. 2, 137 (‘very Lancashire’ and ‘distress’); Charles Kingsley to a Millowner, undated, ibid., 137–138 (‘broad’, ‘nearly’, ‘independent’, ‘effeminates’, and ‘emigrate’).

63. Gad J. Heuman, ‘The Killing Time’: The Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994) (‘400’ and ‘300’); Jake Subryan Richards, ‘Political Thought and the Emotion of Shame: John Stuart Mill and the Jamaica Committee during the Governor Eyre Controversy’, Modern Intellectual History (2022), 1–21 (‘investigate’); George Gawler, ‘Governor Edward John Eyre’, The Times, 5 December 1865 (‘Kingsley’); ‘Eyre Defence and Aid Fund’, The Times, 12 September 1866 (‘Ruskin’); John Ruskin, Cambridge School of Art. Mr. Ruskin’s Inaugural Address (Cambridge: Deighton, Bell, and Co. 1858) (‘School of Art’); Clark, Endowments, 498 (‘Fitzwilliam’); Roderick Murchison, ‘The Prosecution of Ex-Governor Eyre’, The Times, 23 May 1868 (‘distinguished’); ‘Sir Roderick Impey Murchison’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146644333, accessed 1 March 2023 (‘Tourama’).

64. Helga M. Griffin, ‘Henry Ling Roth (1855–1925)’, Australian Dictionary of Biography, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/roth-henry-ling-8278, accessed 16 January 2024 (‘Guiana’); Joseph Beaumont, The New Slavery: An Account of the Indian and Chinese Immigrants in British Guiana (London: W. Ridgway, 1871), 6 (‘new slavery’); Sheldon Amos, The Existing Laws of Demerara for the Regulation of Coolie Immigration (London: Social Science Association, 1871), 2 (‘revival’) and 18 (‘Blakesley’); 14 January 1949, Minutes of Meetings, Labour Situation in British Guiana, TNA, CO 946/1 (‘form of forced labour’ and ‘Estate’); 17 January 1949, ibid. (‘thief’ and ‘serve’); Edward Jenkins, The Coolie: His Rights and Wrongs (New York: George Routledge and Sons, 1871), 25 (‘Cambridge graduates’).

65. Henry Ling Roth Research Fund, 1972–1988, University Registry subject files, 1896–2019, CUL, GBR/0265/UA/R188/1972, Box 1332 (‘research fund’); Russell McDougall and Iain Davidson, ‘Introduction’, in Russell McDougall and Iain Davidson eds., The Roth Family, Anthropology, and Colonial Administration (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), 13 (‘Guiana’); Henry Ling Roth, A Sketch of the Agriculture and Peasantry of Eastern Russia (London: Baillière, Tindall, & Cox, 1878), 82 (‘demoralizing’); Tracey Banivanua-Mar, ‘The Contours of Agency: Women’s Work, Race, and Queensland’s Indentured Labor Trade’, in Carol Williams, ed., Indigenous Women and Work: From Labor to Activism (Urbana, Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 74 (‘63,000’); Tracey Banivanua-Mar, Violence and Colonial Dialogue: The Australian-Pacific Indentured Labour Trade (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007), 53 (‘prison’ and ‘free’), 55 (‘forty’), and 248 (‘Metropolis’); Griffin, ‘Roth’ (‘contracted’, ‘report’, and ‘two papers’); ‘Meeting of the Mackay Planters and Farmers Association’, Mackay Mercury, 5 April 1884, in Henry Ling Roth’s Cuttings on the Queensland sugar industry, CUL, GBR/0115/RCS/RCMS 294 (‘active member’); Henry Ling Roth, ‘To the Editor of the Pall Mall Gazette’, 6 April 1883, in ibid. (‘paradise’, ‘pandemonium’, ‘death rates’, ‘hospitals’, ‘savage life’, ‘disgusting’, and ‘general welfare’); Russell McDougall and Julian Croft, ‘Henry Ling Roth’s and George Kingsley Roth’s Pacific Anthropology’, The Journal of Pacific History 40 (September 2005), 149 (‘Fijian’).

66. Ged Martin, ‘The Cambridge Lectureship of 1866: A False Start in American Studies’, Journal of American Studies 7 (April 1973), 22 (‘Kingsley’ and ‘$6,000’) and 27–28 (‘self-conceit’); ‘Joseph Brooks Yates’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/21522, accessed 16 April 2022 (‘plantation’); Nicholas Draper, ‘British Universities and Caribbean Slavery’, in Jill Pellew and Lawrence Goldman, eds., Dethroning Historical Reputations: Universities, Museums, and the Commemoration of Benefactors (London: Institute of Historical Research, 2018), 98 (‘experienced’); Christopher Chancellor, ed., An Englishman in the American Civil War: The Diaries of Henry Yates Thompson (New York: New York University Press, 1971), 14 (‘abolitionist’ and ‘understanding’).

67. Emily Davies to Barbara Bodichon, 12 March 1863, in Ann B. Murphy and Deidre Raftery, eds., Emily Davies: Collected Letters, 1861–1875 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2004), 42 (‘slave-grown cotton’); Emily Davies to Henry Tomkinson, 14 November 1865, in ibid., 162 (‘restored’, ‘extorted’, and ‘insurrection’); ‘Henry and Elizabeth Yates Thompson’, Newnham College, University of Cambridge, https://newn.cam.ac.uk/about/history/biographies/, accessed 4 April 2022 (‘funding’); ‘Glimpses of Girton: Catherine Gamble’, 22 April 2018, Girton College, Cambridge, www.girton.cam.ac.uk/news/glimpses-girton-jane-catherine-gamble, accessed 15 June 2023 (‘bequest funded’); Last Will and Testament of John G. Gamble, 6 December 1852, Florida County Judge’s Court (Leon County) Probate Records, 1827–1887, microfilm, GSU, 167–177 and ‘Lands of Col. John G. Gamble’, Floridian & Journal, 2 October 1858 (‘Floridian’); Journal: ‘Fragments of a Life’, 1876–1879, Personal Papers of Jane Catherine Gamble, 1783–1884, GCA, GBR/0271/GCPP Gamble 1/35, 7–8 (‘pernicious influence’); Account of the estate of the late James and N. G. Dunlop, 1847, ibid., 2/5 (‘bonds’ and ‘Canal’). Thompson also donated to the British Museum, but his Cambridge benefaction was more impactful in Newnham’s early history, providing the College with a Library in 1897 and then in 1907 donating funds to double its capacity.

68. Charles Priestley, ed., ‘A Philosopher’s Defense of the Confederacy: Jermyn Cowell to Henry Sidgwick, September 1863’, North & South 9 (May 2006), 82–88 (‘Trinity graduate’); The Index, 3 September 1863 (‘Relief Fund’); John Jermyn Cowell to Henry Sidgwick, 15 September 1863, Letters Received by Henry Sidgwick, WL, Add. MS c/93/93 (‘devastation’, ‘rebel states’, ‘injuries’, ‘sudden liberation’, and ‘emancipation’); Bart Schultz, Henry Sidgwick – Eye of the Universe: An Intellectual Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 647 (‘softened’); Henry Sidgwick to Mary Sidgwick, 15 May 1865, Letters Received by Henry Sidgwick, WL, Add. MS c/99/46 (‘federal’). The Cowells were close to the British educationalist, historian, and King’s fellow Oscar Browning too. John Jermyn became acquainted with Browning through the Union. (Oscar Browning, Memories of Sixty Years at Eton, Cambridge and Elsewhere [London: John Lane, 1910], 39). See also John Jermyn Cowell to Oscar Browning, 6 June 1860 and 21 July 1860, John Jermyn and John Welsford Cowell Letters to Oscar Browning, KCA, GBR/0272/OB/1/412/A.

69. W. C. Lubenow, The Cambridge Apostles, 1820–1914: Liberalism, Imagination, and Friendship in British Intellectual and Professional Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 310–311 (‘Union’s virtues’); Henry Jackson, ‘The Hon. William Everett’, Cambridge Review, 3 March 1910, 316 (‘panegyric’ and ‘tie flaming’).

70. William Everett, On the Cam: Lectures on the University of Cambridge in England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1865), 371 (‘difference’ and ‘landed interest’), 362 (‘governing’), 377 (‘literary’), and 380 (‘whole English race’). For race, ethnicity, and the special relationship, see also Duncan Bell, Dreamworlds of Race: Empire and the Utopian Destiny of Anglo-America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020).

71. ‘John Welsford Cowell’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/11832, accessed 4 August 2021 (‘trustee’); Michael Taylor, ‘Conservative Political Economy and the Problem of Colonial Slavery, 1823–1833’, HJ 57 (2014), 986 (‘Political Economy Club’); Bennett, London Confederates, 39 (‘branches’); Jessica M. Lepler, The Many Panics of 1837: People, Politics, and the Creation of a Transatlantic Financial Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 57 (‘panics’); John Welsford Cowell, France and the Confederate States (London: Robert Hardwicke, 1865), 11–12 (‘Calhoun’) and 12 (‘cotton’ and ‘unavoidable necessity’); John C. Calhoun, ‘Speech on the Reception of Abolition Petitions’, February 1837, in Speeches of John C. Calhoun: Delivered in the Congress of the United States from 1811 to the Present Time (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1843), 225 (‘positive good’).

72. T. E. Gregory, The Westminster Bank: Through a Century, pref. by the Hon. Rupert E. Beckett, vol. 2 (London: Westminster Bank Limited, 1936), 188–202 (‘Alderman’ and ‘emancipation’); Thomas E. Sebrell II, Persuading John Bull: Union and Confederate Propaganda in Britain, 1860–65 (New York, NY: Lexington Books, 2014), 212 (‘supporter’); ‘British Jackson Monumental Fund’, The Index, 23 July 1863 (‘donated’).

73. 22 October 1857, Minute book of the board of directors of London & Westminster Bank, NatWest, LWB/234/3, 462 (‘loan’); 21 June 1854, ibid., 288 (‘Railway’); Reports from Commissioners: Oxford and Cambridge, vol. 20, 7 (‘building works’); Gregory, Westminster Bank, vol. 2, 188 (‘non-attendance’); ibid., vol. 1, 264–265 (‘fall from our grasp’); Douglas M. Peers, India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885 (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 64 (‘800,000’); ‘David Lionel Salomons’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2016.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=SLMS870DL&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 11 April 2022 (‘alma mater’).

74. Original Correspondence from John W. Cowell, February 1840 to 1852, New Zealand Company Original Correspondence, TNA, CO 208/11 (‘corresponded’); ‘Terms of a Purchase of Land in the Settlement of Otago’, in Cuthbert W. Johnson and William Shaw, ed., The Farmers’ Almanac and Calendar, vol. 3 (London: James Ridgway, 1847–48), 158–161 (‘land purchase’); Colonial William Wakefield to John Welsford Cowell, 10 November 1842, New Zealand Company, TNA, CO 208/11 (‘statistical’). See also John W. Cowell to Charles Cox, 1 November 1853, in A Letter from J. W. Cowell, Esq., to Sir George Grey, K.C.B. Late Governor of New Zealand, On the Mode of the Freeing that Colony from the Tax Imposed Upon it of Paying £268,000 to the New Zealand Company (London: Raynell and Wight, 1854), 7–8. Though it was involved in sending the first four ships to New Zealand, the Association was not a success, and its business was concluded in 1855. See Canterbury Papers: Information Concerning the Principles, Objects, Plans, & Proceedings of the Founders of the Settlement of Canterbury, in New Zealand, 10 vols. (London: John W. Parker, 1850).

75. J. F. Jameson, ‘The London Expenditures of the Confederate Secret Service’, The American Historical Review 35 (July 1930), 816 (‘Confederate agents’); John Welsford Cowell, Southern Secession (London: Robert Hardwicke, 1862), 33 (‘very object’ and ‘absolute independence’); John Welsford Cowell, Lancashire’s Wrongs and the Remedy: Two Letters Addressed to the Cotton Operatives of Great Britain (London: Robert Hardwicke, 1863), 29 (‘protectionist’); Cowell, France, 8 (‘monopolists’) and 18 (‘yoke’).

76. Cowell, Lancashire’s Wrongs, 33 (‘peasantry’) and 5 (‘Operatives’); Cowell, Southern Secession, 18–19 (‘natural’ and ‘mutually’) and 32 (‘noble’); Catherine Hall, ‘Reconfiguring Race: The Stories the Slave-Owners Told’, in Hall et al., eds., Legacies of British Slave-Ownership, 163–202 (‘participants’). See Ritchie D. Watson, Jr., The Cavalier in Virginia Fiction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985).

77. Martin G. Buist, At Specs Non Fracta: Hope & Co. 1770–1815: Merchant Bankers and Diplomats at Work (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1974), 20 (‘loans’); Alexander Beresford Hope, Essays (London: Francis & John Rivington, 1844) and Alexander Beresford Hope, The English Cathedral of the Nineteenth Century (London: John Murray, 1861) (‘busy’); Alexander Beresford Hope, A Popular View of the American Civil War (London, James Ridgway, 1861), 11 (‘inherited’); Bennett, London Confederates, 167–170 (‘Fund’); ‘Hope, Alexander Beresford’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=HP837AJ&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 17 January 2022 (‘1868’). See also ‘William John Bankes’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/2146645443, accessed 9 July 2021; and ‘Sir Nicholas Conyngham Tindal’, Legacies, www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/7212, accessed 9 July 2021.

78. Hope, Popular View, 10–11 (‘ultra-abolitionists’ and ‘untaught’), 35 (‘cruel war’), 28 (‘massacre’), and 36 (‘right arm of strength’); Alexander Beresford Hope, The Results of the American Disruption: The Substance of a Lecture Delivered by Request Before the Maidstone Literary & Mechanics’ Institution, In Continuation of A Popular View of the American Civil War, and England, the North, and the South (London: James Ridgway, 1862), 16 (‘principles of self-dependence’). For the Black Confederate myth, see Kevin M. Levin, Searching for Black Confederates: The Civil War’s Most Persistent Myth (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019).

79. Stephen B. Oates, ‘Henry Hotze: Confederate Agent Abroad’, The Historian 27 (February 1965), 133–134 (‘emigrated’); Dubrulle, Ambivalent Nation, 108 (‘Gobineau’); Charles M. Hubbard, The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1998), 100 (‘seven hundred’); Lonnie A. Burnett, ed., Henry Hotze, Confederate Propagandist: Selected Writings on Revolution, Recognition, and Race (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2008), 19 (‘paid journalists’) and 20–22 (‘opinion’).

80. Henry Hotze to Hon. J. B. Benjamin, 13 February 1864, in Colonel Harry Kidder White, ed., Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, vol. 3 (Washington, D.C.: Naval War Records Office 1922), 1025 (‘locality’); Henry Hotze to Hon. J. B. Benjamin, 29 July 1864, ibid., 1178 (‘permanent root’ and ‘two gentlemen’); Oates, ‘Henry Hotze’, 151 (‘idea’); Richard Barksdale Harwell, ed., ‘The Creed of a Propagandist: Letter from a Confederate Editor’, Journalism Quarterly 28 (Spring 1951), 215 (‘identified’).

81. Zoë Laidlaw, Protecting the Empire’s Humanity: Thomas Hodgkin and British Colonial Activism, 1830–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 81 (‘Ethnological’); Seth, ‘Race, Specificity, and Statistics’, 379 (‘polygenism’); James Hunt, ‘On the Negro’s Place in Nature’, in Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London, 1863–4 (London: Trübner and Co., 1865), 55 (‘improvement’ and ‘impunity’) and 56 (‘diseases’); Kathryn Olivarius, Necropolis: Disease, Power, and Capitalism in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2022), 81 (‘immune’).

82. Barbara Black, A Room of His Own: A Literary-Cultural Study of Victorian Clubland (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2012), 170 (‘Cannibal Club’); Edmund Gosse, Books on the Table (New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1921), 64 (‘dined’) and 65 (‘Bendyshe’); ‘Twelfth List of the Foundation Fellows of the Anthropological Society of London’, in Thomas Bendyshe, ed., The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Late Professor at Göttingen and Court Physician to the King of Great Britain (London: Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1865), 3–16 (‘Cambridge-affiliated men’); John S. Michael, ‘Nuance Lost in Translation: Interpretations of J. F. Blumenbach’s Anthropology in the English Speaking World’, NTM: International Journal of History & Ethics of Natural Sciences Technology & Medicine 25 (July 2017), 291 (‘oversimplified’); Thomas Bendyshe, ‘On the Extinction of Races’, Journal of the Anthropological Society of London 2 (1864), xcix–cxiii (‘extinction’).

83. James Hunt, Anniversary Address Delivered Before the Anthropological Society of London, January 5th, 1864 (London: Anthropological Society of London, 1864), 21 (‘ASL’); ‘John George Witt’, ACAD, https://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=WT856JG&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50, accessed 17 January 2022 (‘matriculated’); John George Witt, Life in the Law (London: T. Werner Laurie, 1906), 141 (‘met’) and 143 (‘entered’); 12 February 1861, Minute Book of Cambridge Union Society, CUL, USOC 1/1/1/17 (‘probable’).

84. Henry Hotze to John George Witt, 11 August 1864, Henry Hotze Letter and Dispatch Book, LARC, 90 (‘highest ideal’); Witt, Life, 144 (‘Southern cause’) and 156 (‘free off-hand’, ‘property’, ‘creed’, and ‘demarcation’); John George Witt, ‘In Ducem Illustrissimum’, The Index, 2 June 1864 (‘poem’). Hotze’s attention to the universities was not unusual or unprecedented. One southern enslaver identified Oxford University as the ‘eye’ and ‘telescope’ of ‘British policy’. (Samuel A. Cartwright, ‘The Education, Labor, and Wealth of the South’, in E. N. Elliott, ed., Cotton is King, and Pro-Slavery Arguments [Augusta, GA: Pritchard, Abbott & Loomis, 1860], 893).

85. Witt, Life, 146 and 148 (‘remained in contact’), 154 (‘dinner’), 157 (‘many looks’), 158–159 (‘rich inheritance’, ‘laughed’, and ‘delightful’); Jefferson Davis to John George Witt, 4 December 1868, in Lynda Lasswell Crist et al., The Papers of Jefferson Davis, vol. 12 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008), 331 (‘Cambridge’). These exiles settled in many countries, including Brazil, Mexico, and Britain. See Michael L. Conniff and Cyrus B. Dawsey, eds., The Confederados: Old South Immigrants in Brazil (Auburn: University of Alabama Press, 1987); William Clark Griggs, The Elusive Eden: Frank McMullan’s Confederate Colony in Brazil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987); and Daniel E. Sutherland, ‘Exiles, Emigrants, and Sojourners: The Post-Civil War Confederate Exodus in Perspective’, Civil War History 31 (September 1985), 237–256.

86. Witt, Life, 160 (‘introduced’) and 166–167 (‘Great Seal’ and ‘American citizen’). Thanks, in part, to Witt’s efforts, Benjamin did not die a poor man. His executors, including Witt and Lindsay Middleton Appland (another London barrister), appraised the estate at over £60,221. From 1867 to 1882, Benjamin had earnt more than £143,900 from his work at the English bar. (Pierce Butler, Judah P. Benjamin [Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Company, 1906], 419 [‘appraised’] and 441 [‘work’].)

1. List of Tharp Estates & Number of Slaves in 1817, Tharp Papers, CA, R55/7/123/16 (‘Weippart’ and ‘list’); Sarah M. S. Pearsall, Atlantic Families: Lives and Letters in the Later Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 213, n. 12 (‘Trinity’); ‘Splendid Entertainment at Windsor Castle’, The Court Journal. From January to December 1833 (London: Henry Colburn, 1833), 212 (‘birthday’); Robert Livingston Schuyler, ‘The Constitutional Claims of the British West Indies: The Controversy over the Slave Registry Bill of 1815’, Political Science Quarterly 40 (March 1925), 6 (‘Registry’).

2. Ruth Simmons, ‘Hidden in Plain Sight: Slavery and Justice in Rhode Island’, The Eagle, 2007, 54 (‘intrigued’); Lauren Egan, ‘Biden Signs into Law Bill Establishing Juneteenth as Federal Holiday’, NBC News, www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/biden-signs-law-bill-establishing-juneteenth-federal-holiday-n1271213, accessed 17 June 2021 (‘Juneteenth’); John R. Oldfield and Mary Wills, ‘Remembering 1807: Lessons from the Archives’, History Workshop Journal 90 (Autumn 2020), 253–272 (‘nationalistic’); Erik Gøbel, The Danish Slave Trade and Its Abolition (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 177 (‘1803’).

3. The interconnections between British society and culture and the empire to the present have been more recently discussed in Sathnam Sanghera, Empireland: How Imperialism Has Shaped Modern Britain (New York: Pantheon Books, 2023); and Charlotte Lydia Riley, Imperial Island: An Alternative History of the British Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2024).