An understanding of warfare in historical perspective – in Africa or anywhere else – can only begin with an appreciation of certain key drivers and dynamics over the longue durée. The roles of environment and economy are central in this respect, and certain social, cultural and political parameters and permutations need to be surveyed before embarking on an exploration of the finer detail. It might be pointed out that some of the broad observations made in what follows represent ‘universal truths’, in that they are by no means peculiar to Africa’s circumstances: So, for example, dense forest and open savannah facilitate markedly distinct forms of combat and military organisation; political authority, in whatever guise, is rarely without a military component, whether covert or overt; all human communities celebrate their own courage and sense of honour on the field of battle, whatever form the battle itself takes. But it will be clear from the ensuing discussion that there are particular dynamics at work in Africa’s military history – despite the enormous diversity across the continent – which can be, and need to be, highlighted by way of a preliminary overview.

Terrain and Population

Particular physical environments and climates have had a direct bearing on forms of organised violence. They have implications for the very nature of militarism – by which is meant the centrality of warfare in society and culture – as well as military structures and strategies of defence and aggression. Two broad features need to be noted from the outset. Firstly, the relative regularity of Africa’s coastline and the infrequency of natural harbours – with the notable exception of the Mediterranean coast – meant the absence, in general, of the armed ocean-going fleets so prominent in western European and east Asian military history; only on stretches of navigable rivers, on inland lakes, and along the West African coastal lagoon system was war waged on water. Secondly, the key distinction within the continental landmass itself is between the tropical zone infested with the tsetse fly – very approximately, a band contained between the 15th degree latitudes on either side of the equator – and the tsetse-free land north and south of it. The tsetse attacks livestock – including cattle, sheep, goats, camels and horses – and spreads trypanosomiasis, which is usually fatal; there is a human variant, known as sleeping sickness.