The language of classical first-order logic

First-order logic (sometimes called predicate logic) includes all of the connectives of propositional logic. Unlike propositional logic, however, first-order logic analyzes simple sentences into terms and predicates. We use uppercase roman letters as predicates, lowercase roman letters a through t as (individual) constants, and lowercase roman letters u through z as (individual) variables. Predicates, constants, and variables may be augmented with subscripts if necessary, thus guaranteeing an infinite supply of each.

Constants function like names in English, and variables function like pronouns. Together constants and variables count as terms. Predicates have arities, where an arity is the number of terms to which a predicate applies. In English, for example, the arity of the predicate runs in John runs is 1 – it combines with a single term, John in this case – while the arity of the predicate loves in John loves Sue is 2 – it combines with two terms. Atomic formulas are formed by writing predicates in initial position followed by an appropriate number of terms (determined by the predicate's arity). John runs and John loves Sue might thus be symbolized as Rj and Ljs.

There are two standard quantifiers in first-order logic, the universal and the existential quantifiers. We'll use ∀ as the universal quantifier symbol and ∃ as the existential quantifier symbol.

Introduction

Within the DRIVER project, work package seven consists of several introductory studies regarding topics relating to setting up and maintaining digital repositories. Difficulties with solving copyrights problems often hamper the filling of digital repositories and hinder a smooth management of the repository. Questions about ownership of the works in the repository, or getting permission to use a work in accordance with the ideas and principles of open access frequently take a lot of time or even hinder the creation of a fully accessible repository. Examples or models to overcome the copyright problems would be most helpful. Therefore, within the context of the DRIVER study, a study on intellectual property which provides examples and models is indispensable.

The aim of this inventory study is threefold. Firstly it gives an overview of copyright and other intellectual rights relevant for digital repositories. Secondly it provides insight in what (study and experimental) work on intellectual property is already being done in the EU. Furthermore the study provides models to continue working with and for developing digital repositories in the EU context, in order to arrive at sustainable development and operation at the local, national and international levels. It is written for those who are involved in the process of setting up a repository, or those who are running one.

The starting point of this study is the central position of the author in the landscape of scholarly information. It examines the legal relationships an author has to go into to make his work fully openly available. The background for this study is the open access principle as articulated in various declarations regarding open access. Three different relationships are the subject of the study: the legal relationship between the author and his/her institution, the legal relationship between the author and the publisher, and the legal relationship between the author and society.

The relationship author-institution will cover the topics of copyright ownership of scholarly publications and copyright policies. The strand authorpublisher goes into the matter of the key needs for authors and publishers, publishing agreements and the principles an author might take into account when publishing an article in a journal that is not an open access journal. The relationship author-society is a more complex one. The terms and conditions under which a work can be made available will be discussed. The digital deposit licence is the most important topic here.

Introduction

Scientific research increasingly creates and uses digital data in many different ways and in a wide range of formats. Data curation activities are required to maintain and preserve the digital research data as well as to facilitate its future reuse. Increasingly science will be carried out through distributed global collaborations enabled by the internet. The Grid infrastructure will provide ‘e-Science’ with powerful large-scale computing resources and dedicated repository management software.

This chapter on data curation is closely related to chapter 6 by Barbara Sierman on digital preservation, as both studies are concerned with the longevity and long-term storage of digital objects. The main difference between the two chapters is that her chapter on digital preservation takes organisation and management aspects into consideration whereas this chapter on data curation takes the digital object as its starting point. Despite the fact that the two reports emphasise different aspects, some overlap is unavoidable.

This chapter consists of five parts. The first part contains an elaboration on the concept of data curation. Next, features of scientific digital objects are described for which data curation is relevant. The third part covers data quality issues. Next, some remarks are made on data curation tools and procedures; the tools, procedures and concepts that are described in this section are examples of practical implementations of data curation. The last part of this chapter contains concluding remarks. As data curation is a relatively new term and used within the context of a wide number of projects, initiatives and organisations in different ways, it is impossible to cover all aspects and details in an objective way. This chapter is based on a number of published information sources and empirical observations.

What is data curation?

According to Wikipedia, a curator is a person in charge of a cultural heritage institute (e.g. an archive, gallery, library, museum) who cares for the institution's collections. The object of a curator's concern necessarily involves tangible objects of some sort, whether it is artwork, collectibles, historic items or scientific collections. The role of the curator encompasses collecting objects, making provision for the effective preservation, conservation, interpretation, documentation, research and display of the collection, and to make the collection accessible to the public.

Introduction

This study investigates the challenges in populating repositories in Europe based on six good practices. These case studies have been selected to represent the current types of repository and repository service models in existence, with which most repository or related service managers can identify. Good practices have been chosen as a means to inspire the challenged or even disheartened. Cases have been analysed on a number of aspects such as policy issues, organisational choices, the establishment of the repository or service, population mechanisms, take-up, services, advocacy and legal issues. This contribution is intended as a guide to models which stimulate the population of repositories. The in-depth analysis of the cases on the DRIVER website www.driver-community.eu is of advantage to the reader who is seeking detailed information about a particular context.

This chapter has been primarily written for the repository manager. This can be an institutional repository manager, a departmental one, or a broader-reaching national or international disciplinary one; it can also be the manager of a service which has been established to bring together research from a number of sources. However, all managers have one thing in common: populating their archives is a challenge. A choice of solutions to the common problem will be provided and common guidelines to improve on population efforts conclude lessons learnt from these cases. The library director or information manager responsible for research information will also be interested in this study. It is important for these senior managers and policy makers to comprehend the complexities surrounding the challenges in populating repositories in order to make the necessary cultural changes. Higher-level European policy makers can use the results of this study for policy and funding programme development.

This study particularly focuses on the policy and organisational issues which have influenced deposit rates, which includes highlighting repository services. It likewise investigates take-up mechanisms on levels of senior management as well as within the research community. Various advocacy initiatives will be outlined which have supported these. Legal issues which either prevent or even stimulate the deployment of content are included in the analysis. These areas and their critical success factors and inhibiting factors for the population of the digital repositories and services are used as the basis for identifying concrete guidelines for better guaranteeing researcher take-up and content deployment in the future.

Introduction

The growth of institutional repositories and their valuable digital content raises questions as to how to preserve this content for the long term. In this chapter the main topic is the long-term preservation of digital material and its consequences for institutional repositories.

In 1999 Jeff Rothenberg was one of the first to raise the question on how we can preserve digital material over the years. In his article he imagined that he left his grandchildren a CD-ROM and a letter, in which he told them that the way to his fortune could be found on the CD-ROM. But they found this CD-ROM in 2045. Could they find the treasure, could they read the obsolete CD-ROM? This article was the starting point of many discussions. During the last decade, many articles have been written and conferences organised around the theme of digital preservation. Everyday, new projects and insights are made public on the websites of the preservation communities. Despite all these efforts, digital preservation has not yet attained its full development. For institutional repositories, with their collections of science treasures waiting to be found by contemporary and future generations, the question of how to preserve this valuable material for the long term and how to keep this accessible over the years, becomes vital. Unfortunately, a clear and simple recipe with rules and guidelines on how to perform digital preservation in a consistent manner has not yet been written. Digital preservation is a relatively new area, and one in which a broad community is still searching for the best way to handle digital material for the long term. This means that starting points are still subject to discussion (like the OAIS model) and that, although the goal is clear, the necessary tools to reach this goal are still to be developed or to be improved.

In this chapter, one of the main goals is to raise awareness. It is important for every institutional repository manager to be aware of the aspects of digital preservation and to be familiar with the solutions and measures he/ she is supposed to take for his/her repository.

This chapter will describe various aspects of digital preservation.